The environmentally-assisted fatigue crack growth behaviour of austenitic stainless steels in deoxygenated high temperature water at low strain rates has been reported to be greatly affected by the sulphur (S) content of the specimen, with high S specimens exhibiting significant reduced crack growth rates (retardation) when compared to low S specimens. To further the understanding of the mechanistic behaviour, fatigue crack growth experiments have been performed on high and low sulphur Type 316 austenitic stainless steel specimens tested in high temperature water and evaluated via microstructural characterisation techniques. At high strain rates the enhanced crack growth for both specimens appeared to be crystallographic and associated with slip localization. Furthermore, matching fracture surface analysis indicated discrepancy of the slip steps and micro-cleavage cracks between the matching surfaces, suggesting that slip steps and micro-cleavage cracking occurred after the crack-tip had advanced. It was also postulated that their formation may involve cathodically-produced hydrogen and shear deformation on the fracture surface. However, when the loading frequency was decreased, the high S specimens retarded the crack growth and the path was no longer crystallographic. Significant differences in the crack-tip opening displacements were observed in both materials, with blunt crack-tips in the high sulphur specimen and sharp tips in the low sulphur specimen when the strain rate was low. EBSD analysis at the crack-tips of both specimens showed that the strain was more localised at the crack-tip of the low sulphur specimen whist the strain ahead of the high sulphur specimen was more homogenous. It is thus postulated that retardation occurs when slip localisation is no longer the dominant factor. The localised deformation during enhancement is believed to have been caused by hydrogen enhanced localised plasticity (HELP) which causes the crack-tip to sharpen. The diffused strain distribution during crack growth retardation is believed to have been caused by hydrogen enhanced creep (HEC) which causes the crack-tip to blunt. It is also believed that both enhancement and retardation mechanisms are associated with contrasting effects deriving from hydrogen enhanced plasticity. Oxide induced crack closure was excluded as a mechanism responsible for retardation of fatigue crack growth when the stress ratio is high. Effects of hydrogen induced alpha' and ε martensite phases on oxidation behaviour of austenitic stainless steels in deoxygenated high temperature water have also been studied. Microstructural characterisation shows that hydrogen induced alpha' martensite enhances oxidation of austenitic stainless steels in deoxygenated high temperature water. The implications of this finding on environmentally assisted cracking of austenitic stainless steels in deoxygenated high temperature water is discussed.

As inclusões de sulfeto de manganês (MnS) são compostos não-metálicos formados no aço pela reação entre o enxofre (S) e o manganês (Mn). A formação das inclusões de MnS durante o processo de produção do aço é esperada e desejada em aços onde a usinabilidade é uma característica importante. Na usinagem, as inclusões apresentam um efeito de concentração de tensão no aço facilitando a quebra do cavaco. Esse efeito está determinado por fatores como tamanho e forma das inclusões e a distribuição das mesmas na matriz metálica. Vários estudos experimentais têm sido realizados com relação a esses fatores, no entanto, não existem modelos numéricos consolidados sobre este tema. O foco deste trabalho foi estudar a relação entre a microestrutura de dois aços para construção mecânica (composição base ABNT 1045) e sua usinabilidade. Um modelo numérico foi proposto para estudar os campos de tensão gerados no aço durante os processos de corte, considerando os aspectos microestruturais (principalmente as inclusões de MnS). As tensões resultantes durante o torneamento foram simuladas com base em medições de força de avanço e de corte durante ensaios de usinagem. Foi obtida uma boa correlação entre o modelo numérico e os resultados experimentais. A análise numérica confirmou que as inclusões atuam como concentradores de tensão e que sua morfologia e distribuição influenciam na usinabilidade do material. / MnS inclusions are non-metallic compounds formed in steel due to chemical reactions between sulfur and manganese. The formation of MnS inclusions during steel production is generally expected and sometimes desired in steels for machining applications. During machining, the stress concentrating effect due to MnS inclusions is determined by factors such as their size, shape and distribution in the metallic matrix. Several experimental studies have been conducted in this area; nevertheless, there are no consolidated numerical models. The main objective of this work was to analyze the relationship between the microstructure of two steels (ABNT 1045) and their machinability. A numerical model was proposed to study the stress fields during the cutting process, considering the microstructural aspects of steels (mainly the MnS inclusions). Stresses during turning were simulated based on experimental measurements of cutting and feed forces. A good agreement between the numerical model and experimental results was observed. Numerical results confirm that MnS inclusions are stress concentrators and their morphology and distribution influence the materials machinability.

O presente trabalho trata sobre a influência do teor de enxofre, em quatro aços com uma composição química similar (famílias ABNT 1045 e ABNT 1145), na microestrutura, nas propriedades estáticas, dinâmicas e nos processos de usinagem. Para esta análise foi feita uma caracterização microestrutural de cada material para determinar parâmetros tais como a fração de inclusões de sulfeto de manganês (MnS) e a fração volumétrica de perlita. Também foi feita uma caracterização mecânica que consistiu em ensaios estáticos mediante o ensaio de tração e dureza, e um ensaio dinâmico utilizando a barra de Hopkinson, com o objetivo de observar o comportamento das inclusões e do próprio material quando deformado com altas e baixas taxas de deformação. Para a caracterização durante a usinagem destes aços foram feitos ensaios de torneamento para avaliar as forças de corte e de avanço em velocidades de corte de 190, 110, 45 e 15 m/min. A rugosidade dos corpos-de-prova também foi medida. Os resultados obtidos nos ensaios de torneamento e da caracterização microestrutural foram analisados estatisticamente para observar variações do comportamento das forças de usinagem de cada aço sob diferentes condições de velocidade de corte, e tentar correlacionar esse comportamento com a microestrutura do material. Observou-se que o aço 1045-A apresentou forças de usinagem (força de corte e força de avanço) superiores que os demais aços, já o aço que apresentou menores forças de usinagem foi o aço 1145-B. Isto é apenas uma tendência, devido que não houve diferença estatística que avaliasse esse comportamento. Também se observou que a rugosidade é um parâmetro que depende mais da velocidade de corte que da distribuição e/ou morfologia das inclusões. Evidenciou-se a formação de aresta postiça de corte (APC) numa faixa de velocidades (15-50 m/min), o que influenciou na rugosidade para estas condições de velocidades. Verificou-se que o comportamento das inclusões em baixas taxas de deformação é de caráter frágil, entanto que em altas taxas seu comportamento é plástico e deforma junto com a matriz. / This work deals with the sulfur influence on the microstructure and on the static, dynamic and machining behavior of four steels with similar chemical composition. (ABNT 1045 and ABNT 1145). Microstructure characterization of the materials was performed in order to obtain the area fraction of the phases of perlite and sulfide inclusions. A mechanical characterization of the materials was also performed, consisting in a set of static (tension and hardness test) and dynamic tests (Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar Test) with the objective of observing the deformation behavior of the sulfide inclusions at low and high strain rates. Various machining tests were carried out at different cutting speeds, namely 190, 110, 45 e 15 m min-1, for obtaining the cutting forces during de machining process. After the machining tests, the roughness of the steels was also measured. Later on, the results of the different experiments were analyzed with statistical tools and then compared to establish a correlation between the cutting forces and microstructure. The higher cutting forces were registered for the 1045-A steel and the lower for the 1145-B steel. However, this was considered merely a trend given that no statistical difference was found to support any conclusion. It was also observed a stronger roughness dependency on the cutting speed than in the distribution and/or morphology of the inclusions. The steels were observed to form a built-up edge (BUE) in a range of cutting velocities of 15-50 m/min. This phenomenon affected the roughness for these cutting velocities. The behavior of the sulfide inclusions was observed to be brittle under low strain rates. On the other hand, under high strain rates, a plastic deformation behavior was observed with inclusions participating in the plastic flow of the metal matrix.

Placing recrystallization annealing in a manufacturing proces is often necessary in order to restore plasticity of worked blanks right before working products to its final shape. For better understanding of processes which are taking place in a material during annealing the use of in-situ techniques is favorable. Such observations enable us to watch changes in the materiál in real time at the original spot. Observations at grain-level are ideally made with scanning electron microscope – SEM by electron back-scattered diffraction – EBSD. The technique makes watching nucleation, growth and potential coarsening of recrystallized grains possible. Special construction of a tensile stage allows us to watch changes of a sample during tensile tests which can be used in observing influence of MnS inclusions on plasticity of free-cutting steels. Materials studied in this work are commonly used free-cutting steel 11SMnPb30 and its lead-free alternative 11SMnBi30.

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As it is already apparent from a title of my work, I will be engaged in proposal of container VN/NN distributor using components from company ABB. This work will be after final making also used by company ABB to simplify procedure of proposal of any kind of container distributor. In my labor I will be generally deal with individual products, which will after that be used in distributor. Next I will be engaged in particular making of distributor, which should be made. The distributor will be designed for a separate part of the transformer and for a transformer as a unit, which is not separated from substation.

Environmentally-assisted cracking (EAC) phenomena affect the in-service behaviour of austenitic stainless steels in nuclear power plants. EAC includes such degradation phenomena as Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) and Corrosion Fatigue (CF). Factors affecting EAC include the material type, microstructure, environment, and stress. This is an important degradation issue for both current and Gen III+ light water reactors, particularly as nuclear power plant lifetimes are extended ( > 60 years). Thus, it is important to understand the behaviour of the alloys used in light water reactors, and phenomena such as SCC to avoid failures. Although there is no agreement on the mechanism(s) of SCC, the importance of localized electrochemical reactions at the material surface is widely recognised. Considerable research has been performed on SCC and CF crack growth, but the initiation phenomena are not fully understood. In this project, novel in situ analytical TEM techniques have been developed and applied to explore localised reactions in Type 304 austenitic stainless steel. In situ transmission electron microscopy has become an increasingly important and dynamic research area in materials science with the advent of unique microscope platforms and a range of specialized in situ specimen holders. In metals research, the ability to image and perform X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (XED) analyses of metals in liquids are particularly important for detailed study of the metal-environment interactions with specific microstructural features. To further facilitate such studies a special hybrid specimen preparation technique involving electropolishing and FIB extraction has been developed in this thesis to enable metal specimens to be examined in the liquid cell TEM specimen holder using both distilled H2O and H2SO4 solutions. Furthermore, a novel electrode configuration has been designed to permit the localized electrochemical measurement of electron-transparent specimens in the TEM. These novel approaches have been benchmarked by extensive ex situ experiments, including both conventional electrochemical measurements and microcell measurements. The results are discussed in terms of validation of in situ test data as well as the role of the electron beam in the experiments. In situ liquid cell TEM experiments have also explored the localized dissolution of MnS inclusions in H2O, and correlated the behaviour with ex situ experiments. Based on the research performed in this thesis, in situ liquid cell and in situ electrochemical cell experiments can be used to study nanoscale reactions pertaining to corrosion and localized dissolution leading to "precursor" events for subsequent EAC phenomena.

This master’s thesis deals with the design of electric switchgear for low voltage, which will serve for presentation purposes. The switchgear is analogy of the modular system MNS 3.0, which includes the latest equipment of ABB Ltd. that is currently available on the market. Switchgears of this type are widely used in industry primarily for controlling motor units. For this reason, in the switchgear there are located motor starters in various performances, as well as distribution modules. In addition, the switchgear has an automatic transfer switch function in case of failure of one of the power supplies. The complete documentation of the switchgear is processed in the professional software EPLAN Electric P8 with use of the 3D software EPLAN Pro Panel for modelling device compartments. The final part of the thesis is the calculation of the maximum cable lengths that a potential customer can connect to the switchgear. In addition, an analysis of the power and control circuits was carried out for voltage drop calculations, as well as the effect of these voltage drops and capacitance of long control cables on the actuation of contactors.

The emphasis of this study is focusing on three-dimensional (3D) investigations of the manganese sulfide (MnS) inclusions characteristics in steels by using electrolytic extraction (EE). Two steel grades, 42CrMo4 and 157C, heat treated (HT) at 900 oC were investigated. 42CrMo4 steel samples were heat treated for 5, 10, 15 and 30 minutes while 157C steel samples were heat treated for 5 minutes. Samples of 42CrMo4 were taken from middle zone of an as-cast steel bar while that for grade 157C were taken from 3 different zones (centre, middle and surface). Inclusions were collected on film filters and analyzed by SEM for classification and determination of their characteristics including the size, number density (Nv), morphology and composition. The aspect ratio (AR) as well as particle size distribution (PSD) were also compared for steel samples conducted at various HT times. The result showed that EE is a reliable method of investigation inclusion characteristics. The inclusions were classified into 3 types according to their morphology and composition. Type I was elongated rod-like MnS, type II was coarsened sheet-like MnS and type III was spherical MnS inclusions. In addition, HT significantly reduced the Nv and fairly reduced AR but no significant reduction in size observed. The peak of PSD decreased with an increased HT time. The change of Nv, length, AR and PSD could be altered because of uneven inclusion distribution in filter and different sampling positions.

Brain-computer interfaces (BCI) have been used to control the gait of a virtual self-avatar with the aim of being used in gait rehabilitation. A BCI decodes the brain signals representing a desire to do something and transforms them into a control command for controlling external devices. The feelings described by the participants when they control a self-avatar in an immersive virtual environment (VE) demonstrate that humans can be embodied in the surrogate body of an avatar (ownership illusion). It has recently been shown that inducing the ownership illusion and then manipulating the movements of one’s self-avatar can lead to compensatory motor control strategies. In order to maximize this effect, there is a need for a method that measures and monitors embodiment levels of participants immersed in virtual reality (VR) to induce and maintain a strong ownership illusion. This is particularly true given that reaching a high level of both BCI performance and embodiment are inter-connected. To reach one of them, the second must be reached as well. Some limitations of many existing systems hinder their adoption for neurorehabilitation: 1- some use motor imagery (MI) of movements other than gait; 2- most systems allow the user to take single steps or to walk but do not allow both, which prevents users from progressing from steps to gait; 3- most of them function in a single BCI mode (cue-paced or self-paced), which prevents users from progressing from machine-dependent to machine-independent walking. Overcoming the aforementioned limitations can be done by combining different control modes and options in one single system. However, this would have a negative impact on BCI performance, therefore diminishing its usefulness as a potential rehabilitation tool. In this case, there will be a need to enhance BCI performance. For such purpose, many techniques have been used in the literature, such as providing modified feedback (whereby the presented feedback is not consistent with the user’s MI), sequential training (recalibrating the classifier as more data becomes available). This thesis was developed over 3 studies. The objective in study 1 was to investigate the possibility of measuring the level of embodiment of an immersive self-avatar, during the performing, observing and imagining of gait, using electroencephalogram (EEG) techniques, by presenting visual feedback that conflicts with the desired movement of embodied participants. The objective of study 2 was to develop and validate a BCI to control single steps and forward walking of an immersive virtual reality (VR) self-avatar, using mental imagery of these actions, in cue-paced and self-paced modes. Different performance enhancement strategies were implemented to increase BCI performance. The data of these two studies were then used in study 3 to construct a generic classifier that could eliminate offline calibration for future users and shorten training time. Twenty different healthy participants took part in studies 1 and 2. In study 1, participants wore an EEG cap and motion capture markers, with an avatar displayed in a head-mounted display (HMD) from a first-person perspective (1PP). They were cued to either perform, watch or imagine a single step forward or to initiate walking on a treadmill. For some of the trials, the avatar took a step with the contralateral limb or stopped walking before the participant stopped (modified feedback). In study 2, participants completed a 4-day sequential training to control the gait of an avatar in both BCI modes. In cue-paced mode, they were cued to imagine a single step forward, using their right or left foot, or to walk forward. In the self-paced mode, they were instructed to reach a target using the MI of multiple steps (switch control mode) or maintaining the MI of forward walking (continuous control mode). The avatar moved as a response to two calibrated regularized linear discriminant analysis (RLDA) classifiers that used the μ power spectral density (PSD) over the foot area of the motor cortex as features. The classifiers were retrained after every session. During the training, and for some of the trials, positive modified feedback was presented to half of the participants, where the avatar moved correctly regardless of the participant’s real performance. In both studies, the participants’ subjective experience was analyzed using a questionnaire. Results of study 1 show that subjective levels of embodiment correlate strongly with the power differences of the event-related synchronization (ERS) within the μ frequency band, and over the motor and pre-motor cortices between the modified and regular feedback trials. Results of study 2 show that all participants were able to operate the cued-paced BCI and the selfpaced BCI in both modes. For the cue-paced BCI, the average offline performance (classification rate) on day 1 was 67±6.1% and 86±6.1% on day 3, showing that the recalibration of the classifiers enhanced the offline performance of the BCI (p < 0.01). The average online performance was 85.9±8.4% for the modified feedback group (77-97%) versus 75% for the non-modified feedback group. For self-paced BCI, the average performance was 83% at switch control and 92% at continuous control mode, with a maximum of 12 seconds of control. Modified feedback enhanced BCI performances (p =0.001). Finally, results of study 3 show that the constructed generic models performed as well as models obtained from participant-specific offline data. The results show that there it is possible to design a participant-independent zero-training BCI. / Les interfaces cerveau-ordinateur (ICO) ont été utilisées pour contrôler la marche d'un égo-avatar virtuel dans le but d'être utilisées dans la réadaptation de la marche. Une ICO décode les signaux du cerveau représentant un désir de faire produire un mouvement et les transforme en une commande de contrôle pour contrôler des appareils externes. Les sentiments décrits par les participants lorsqu'ils contrôlent un égo-avatar dans un environnement virtuel immersif démontrent que les humains peuvent être incarnés dans un corps d'un avatar (illusion de propriété). Il a été récemment démontré que provoquer l’illusion de propriété puis manipuler les mouvements de l’égo-avatar peut conduire à des stratégies de contrôle moteur compensatoire. Afin de maximiser cet effet, il existe un besoin d'une méthode qui mesure et surveille les niveaux d’incarnation des participants immergés dans la réalité virtuelle (RV) pour induire et maintenir une forte illusion de propriété. D'autre part, atteindre un niveau élevé de performances (taux de classification) ICO et d’incarnation est interconnecté. Pour atteindre l'un d'eux, le second doit également être atteint. Certaines limitations de plusieurs de ces systèmes entravent leur adoption pour la neuroréhabilitation: 1- certains utilisent l'imagerie motrice (IM) des mouvements autres que la marche; 2- la plupart des systèmes permettent à l'utilisateur de faire des pas simples ou de marcher mais pas les deux, ce qui ne permet pas à un utilisateur de passer des pas à la marche; 3- la plupart fonctionnent en un seul mode d’ICO, rythmé (cue-paced) ou auto-rythmé (self-paced). Surmonter les limitations susmentionnées peut être fait en combinant différents modes et options de commande dans un seul système. Cependant, cela aurait un impact négatif sur les performances de l’ICO, diminuant ainsi son utilité en tant qu'outil potentiel de réhabilitation. Dans ce cas, il sera nécessaire d'améliorer les performances des ICO. À cette fin, de nombreuses techniques ont été utilisées dans la littérature, telles que la rétroaction modifiée, le recalibrage du classificateur et l'utilisation d'un classificateur générique. Le projet de cette thèse a été réalisé en 3 études, avec objectif d'étudier dans l'étude 1, la possibilité de mesurer le niveau d'incarnation d'un égo-avatar immersif, lors de l'exécution, de l'observation et de l'imagination de la marche, à l'aide des techniques encéphalogramme (EEG), en présentant une rétroaction visuelle qui entre en conflit avec la commande du contrôle moteur des sujets incarnés. L'objectif de l'étude 2 était de développer un BCI pour contrôler les pas et la marche vers l’avant d'un égo-avatar dans la réalité virtuelle immersive, en utilisant l'imagerie motrice de ces actions, dans des modes rythmés et auto-rythmés. Différentes stratégies d'amélioration des performances ont été mises en œuvre pour augmenter la performance (taux de classification) de l’ICO. Les données de ces deux études ont ensuite été utilisées dans l'étude 3 pour construire des classificateurs génériques qui pourraient éliminer la calibration hors ligne pour les futurs utilisateurs et raccourcir le temps de formation. Vingt participants sains différents ont participé aux études 1 et 2. Dans l'étude 1, les participants portaient un casque EEG et des marqueurs de capture de mouvement, avec un avatar affiché dans un casque de RV du point de vue de la première personne (1PP). Ils ont été invités à performer, à regarder ou à imaginer un seul pas en avant ou la marche vers l’avant (pour quelques secondes) sur le tapis roulant. Pour certains essais, l'avatar a fait un pas avec le membre controlatéral ou a arrêté de marcher avant que le participant ne s'arrête (rétroaction modifiée). Dans l'étude 2, les participants ont participé à un entrainement séquentiel de 4 jours pour contrôler la marche d'un avatar dans les deux modes de l’ICO. En mode rythmé, ils ont imaginé un seul pas en avant, en utilisant leur pied droit ou gauche, ou la marche vers l’avant . En mode auto-rythmé, il leur a été demandé d'atteindre une cible en utilisant l'imagerie motrice (IM) de plusieurs pas (mode de contrôle intermittent) ou en maintenir l'IM de marche vers l’avant (mode de contrôle continu). L'avatar s'est déplacé en réponse à deux classificateurs ‘Regularized Linear Discriminant Analysis’ (RLDA) calibrés qui utilisaient comme caractéristiques la densité spectrale de puissance (Power Spectral Density; PSD) des bandes de fréquences µ (8-12 Hz) sur la zone du pied du cortex moteur. Les classificateurs ont été recalibrés après chaque session. Au cours de l’entrainement et pour certains des essais, une rétroaction modifiée positive a été présentée à la moitié des participants, où l'avatar s'est déplacé correctement quelle que soit la performance réelle du participant. Dans les deux études, l'expérience subjective des participants a été analysée à l'aide d'un questionnaire. Les résultats de l'étude 1 montrent que les niveaux subjectifs d’incarnation sont fortement corrélés à la différence de la puissance de la synchronisation liée à l’événement (Event-Related Synchronization; ERS) sur la bande de fréquence μ et sur le cortex moteur et prémoteur entre les essais de rétroaction modifiés et réguliers. L'étude 2 a montré que tous les participants étaient capables d’utiliser le BCI rythmé et auto-rythmé dans les deux modes. Pour le BCI rythmé, la performance hors ligne moyenne au jour 1 était de 67±6,1% et 86±6,1% au jour 3, ce qui montre que le recalibrage des classificateurs a amélioré la performance hors ligne du BCI (p <0,01). La performance en ligne moyenne était de 85,9±8,4% pour le groupe de rétroaction modifié (77-97%) contre 75% pour le groupe de rétroaction non modifié. Pour le BCI auto-rythmé, la performance moyenne était de 83% en commande de commutateur et de 92% en mode de commande continue, avec un maximum de 12 secondes de commande. Les performances de l’ICO ont été améliorées par la rétroaction modifiée (p = 0,001). Enfin, les résultats de l'étude 3 montrent que pour la classification des initialisations des pas et de la marche, il a été possible de construire des modèles génériques à partir de données hors ligne spécifiques aux participants. Les résultats montrent la possibilité de concevoir une ICO ne nécessitant aucun entraînement spécifique au participant.