Previous research has shown that dairy cows require a dry period of at least 40 d for maximal milk yield in the subsequent lactation. Reducing the dry period requirement could prove beneficial to animal health and dairy profitability if subsequent milk yield was not reduced. Studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of continuous milking (CM) and hormonal treatments on milk yield, mammary epithelial cell (MEC) turnover during late gestation and early lactation, and mammary gene expression in dairy cows. A commercial trial using primiparous and multiparous cows demonstrated equal milk yields in bST-supplemented, CM and 60-d dry (CTL) multiparous cows, but lower milk yields in bST-supplemented CM, primiparous cows treated with bST. Subsequent experiments evaluated mammary development requirements during the dry period in primiparous cows and methods of rescuing milk yield. MEC growth was lower in CM glands during most of late gestation. Maintenance of lactation in CM glands resulted in a marked reduction in the MEC turnover process that occurs in the early dry period. In the last 20 d of gestation, MEC growth remained reduced in CM glands. By the last week of gestation, MEC growth was 50% less in CM tissue vs. CTL tissue. MEC apoptosis was unaffected by CM during the last 20 d of gestation, but a premature decrease in early lactation apoptosis occurred in CM glands at 7 d postpartum. Mammary gene expression demonstrated bax and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5 are involved in apoptosis and cyclin D1, CCAT/enhancer binding protein-β, and bcl2 are involved in mammary development. Ultrastructure of CM tissue revealed large populations of resting or involuting alveoli by d 20 postpartum, whereas CTL glands had a homogenous population of secretory alveoli. Collectively, these data suggest that a 40-53% reduction in milk yield in CM glands is caused by reductions in MEC renewal and reduced secretory capacity. Treatments (bST, prostaglandin E2) to stimulate milk synthesis or MEC growth in CM primiparous glands were unsuccessful. In conclusion, primiparous cows continue to require a 60-d dry period, but multiparous cows are good candidates for short dry periods, and potentially no dry period.

Consumer demand for milk fat has declined due to the increased risk of cardiovascular disease associated with consuming a high saturated fat diet. Milk fat synthesis is energetically expensive for the dairy cow, especially during early lactation or periods of poor nutrition. Thus, manipulating milk fat production and composition may promote the synthesis of more market-valuable milk components and improve energy utilization in dairy cows during periods of increased energy demand. Therefore, the objective of the present studies was to identify molecular proteins that regulate fatty acid synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells. The regulation of lipogenic genes including acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and fatty acid synthase (FAS) is controlled by transcription factors including sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 (SREBP1) and liver X receptor (LXR). In vivo, diet-induced milk fat depression or supplementing diets with polyunsaturated fatty acids inhibits milk fat synthesis by regulating SREBP1 expression. Results confirm that polyunsaturated fatty acids inhibit fatty acid synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells by regulating the expression of SREBP1. In hepatocytes, LXR can regulate the transcription of SREBP1 in addition to ACC and FAS. Results confirm that LXR activation enhanced synthesis of fatty acids in bovine mammary epithelial cells by promoting the transcription of FAS and SREBP1. Activation of LXR was unable to prevent the inhibitory effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on fatty acid synthesis. In the lactating mammary gland, LXR may contribute to the synthesis of fatty acids by regulating the expression of SREBP1. In addition to modifying the expression of lipogenic genes, some enzymes can be phosphorylated by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an energy-sensing protein, inhibiting their activity. Presence of AMPK mRNA was identified in bovine mammary epithelial cells and activation of AMPK dramatically decreased fatty acid synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells. In the lactating mammary gland, AMPK may sense energy availability and regulate milk fat synthesis to control energy utilization. Identification of SREBP1, LXR, and AMPK as regulators of fatty acid synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells may lead to the development of technologies allowing dairy producers to modify milk fat production and composition to meet consumer demand and maximize profitability. / Ph. D.

The majority of bovine mammary gland research focuses on the main cell types - mammary epithelial cells and fibroblasts. However, the extracellular matrix (ECM) within the mammary gland is also of importance for its ability to regulate cell shape, proliferation, polarity, differentiation, gene transcription, protein synthesis, and secretion. Decorin is an ECM proteoglycan known to impact mammary cell proliferation in humans and rodents. Prior to this work, very little was known about decorin in bovine mammary biology. A series of bovine mammary cell culture experiments was conducted. The first experiment demonstrated existence of decorin pathway molecules in immortalized bovine mammary cells, but stopped short of demonstrating mature decorin proteoglycan deposition into the extracellular space. During the investigation it was noted that when cultured under basal conditions, intracellular decorin core protein (DCP) localization patterns appeared to be coordinated with specific phases of the cell cycle. Therefore, the objective of the second set of experiments was to characterize DCP localization patterns in bovine mammary epithelial cells (BME) at known phases of the cell cycle. The work was carried out in two sequential experiments. The hypothesis of the first experiment was that DCP accumulates in BME during S-phase of the cell cycle; the research rejected this hypothesis. The hypothesis of the second experiment, formulated after completion of the first experiment for this objective, was that DCP accumulates in BME during metaphase of the cell cycle. However, the experiment was unable to confirm of reject this hypothesis. Major findings were that both BME and mammary fibroblasts produce DCP and known decorin pathway molecules. BME produce intracellular DCP, but it is not accumulated during the S-phase of the cell cycle. However, it is still unknown if DCP is accumulated in BME during metaphase. Future research should focus on further characterization of decorin and its associated pathway molecules to learn if decorin induces proliferation or apoptosis of bovine mammary epithelial cells. This is important because number and activity of mammary epithelial cells ultimately determine milk yield in dairy cows. Fundamental knowledge gained in this research area may one day be applied at the animal-level and lead to gains in milk production efficiency by altering the cellular composition of mammary glands. / Ph. D.

L’IL-17 est une cytokine essentielle dans la défense de l’organisme contre de nombreuses bactéries pathogènes extracellulaires, comme Siaphylococcus aureus qui est un agent majeur des mammites des ruminants, en agissant en particulier sur les cellules épithéliales. L’objectif du travail était de tester l’hypothèse d’un rôle de i’IL-17 dans la protection de la mamelle en caractérisant la réponse des cellules épithéliales mammaires bovines (CEMb) à l’IL-17A et à l’IL-17F. Ces cytokines bovines ont été utilisées seules ou en combinaison avec des agonistes du système immunitaire inné produits par S. aureus, le muramyl dipeptide (MDP) et l’acide lipotéichoïque (LTA). Une première étude a montré que le LTA et le MDP exercent un effet synergique dans la mamelle et sur les CEMb en culture. Le tissu mammaire et les CEMb expriment le récepteur pour l’IL-l7A et F, et les CEMb ont répondu à i’lL-l7A et l’IL-l7F, bien que de façon modérée. Les réponses ont été sensiblement augmentées par la combinaison de l’IL-17 avec le LTA ou le MDP. Les réponses se caractérisent par une production de chimiokines capables d’attirer les polynucléaires neutrophiles et les leucocytes mononucléés, ainsi que par une surexpression de gènes à activités antibactériennes. Par contre, les CEMb ne produisent pas de cytokines inflammatoires. Ces résultats indiquent que i’IL-l7 est adaptée à un fonctionnement en milieu septique et ales capacités pour jouer un rôle dans la protection de la mamelle contre les infections staphylococciques. / Through its activity on epithelial cells, interleukin-17 is a pivotai cytokine for the host defense against several extracellular pathogens, such as Siaphylococcus aureus that is a major agent of mastitis of ruminants. The investigation aimed at evaluating the role of IL-17 in udder protection by characterizing the response of bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMEC) to IL-17A and IL-17F. These bovine cytokines were used either alone or in combination with one of two innate immune system agonists associated with S. aureus, muramyldipeptide (MDP) or lipoteichoic acid (LTA). The first study showed that LTA synergized with MDP to recruit neutrophils in the mammary gland and to stimulate bMEC. A second study established that mammary tissue and bMEC in culture express the IL-17 receptor, and that bMEC respond to IL-17A and IL-17F, although with a moderate intensity. The response was noticeably augmented by the combination of IL-17 with LTA or MDP. The response was characterized by the production of chemokines able to attract neutrophils but also mononuclear leukocytes, as well as by an overexpression of genes endowed with antibacterial activity. Remarkably, bMEC did not release pro inflammatory cytokines. These results indicate that IL-17A and IL-17F are well suited for operating in a septic environment and have the potential to play a role in udder protection against staphylococcal infections.

Le lait est produit par les cellules épithéliales mammaires (CEM). La quantité de lait produit est déterminée par le nombre de CEM et leur activité métabolique. Le nombre de CEM dépend de l’équilibre entre la prolifération cellulaire et l’apoptose. Le processus d’exfoliation, défini comme le décrochage des CEM de l’épithélium mammaire et leur évacuation dans le lait, a été proposé comme participant aussi à la régulation du nombre de CEM. Les objectifs de cette thèse étaient d’identifier les mécanismes biologiques impliqués dans la régulation de ce processus et d’étudier son rôle dans la régulation du nombre de CEM et son influence sur la production laitière. Nos résultats montrent qu’une partie des CEM est exfoliée entre deux traites consécutives.Cependant, la majorité des CEM sont exfoliées au moment de la traite suite à la contraction des cellules myoépithéliales et à la perte d’intégrité de l’épithélium induites par la décharge d’ocytocine. Le cortisol, au contraire, participerait à la restauration de l’intégrité de l’épithélium mammaire après la fin de la traite et limiterait l’exfoliation. Nous avons montré que les variations du taux d’exfoliation étaient opposées aux variations de production laitière dans le cas d’une restriction alimentaire et après la fin d’un traitement à l’hormone de croissance mais pas dans le cas d’un changement de fourrage, de l’inhibition de la prolactine et pendant un traitement à l’hormone de croissance. Le processus d’exfoliation des CEM participe donc à la régulation de la production laitière mais pas de façon systématique. / Milk is synthesized by mammary epithelial cells (MEC). Milk yield is determined by the number of MEC in the mammary gland and the metabolic activity of these cells. It is well known that MEC number depends on the balance between cell proliferation and apoptosis. The MEC exfoliation process, defined as the shedding of MEC from the mammary epithelium into milk, is another process that might participate in the regulation of MEC number in the udder and thus in milk yield variations. The aims of this thesis were to identify the mechanisms that regulate the exfoliation process and to study the potential role of this process in regulating the number of MEC and milk yield.Our results showed that some MEC are exfoliated between milkings. Most of the MEC are, however, exfoliated during milking as a consequence of the myoepithelial cell contraction and the disruption of mammary epithelium integrity, both of which are caused by milking-induced oxytocin release. Cortisol may play a role in limiting MEC exfoliation by restoring mammary epithelium integrity after milking. We showed that the exfoliation process participates in regulating milk yield during feed restriction and after a treatment with bovine growth hormone but did not participate in regulating milk yield when forage in the ration was changed, when prolactin secretion was inhibited, or during a treatment with bovine growth hormone. These results suggest that the MEC exfoliation process likely participates in regulating milk yield but not systematically.

La recherche sur la fonction de lactation est indispensable pour la filière laitière. La glande mammaire est un organe composé de cellules épithéliales, de cellules myoépithéliales, de fibroblastes, d’adipocytes et de cellules endothéliales. L’identification et l’évolution en dynamique des populations cellulaires dans la glande mammaire bovine au cours la lactation reste encore à ce jour méconnues. Les objectifs de cette thèse ont été 1) l’obtention d’un panel des biomarqueurs pour identifier les différentes cellules dans la glande mammaire bovine et 2) le suivi de leur évolution au cours d’un cycle de lactation. Les biomarqueurs de surface (CD49f, EpCAM, CD24 et CD10) ont permis de phénotyper deux lignées mammaires bovines. Nous avons également utilisé ces biomarqueurs pour phénotyper les cellules dans la glande mammaire bovine au cours d’un cycle de lactation.Dans cet objectif, des biopsies ont été prélevées sur 5 vaches laitières primipares à quatre étapes durant la lactation. Après la digestion des biopsies, les cellules obtenues ont été marquées et phénotypées par cytométrie en flux. L’analyse des résultats montre des corrélations positives entre les populations cellulaires CD49f+ et CD49f+/CD24- avec la production laitière. Nous avons mis en évidence une population cellulaire CD49f-/EpCAM- qui augmente au cours de la lactation. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’à partir de l’utilisation de biomarqueurs il est possible d’identifier et phénotyper l’évolution de différentes cellules pendant la lactation dans la glande mammaire bovine. / Research of lactation function of the bovine mammary gland remains essential in dairy farming. The mammary gland is an organ composed of epithelial cells, myoepithelial cells, fibroblasts, adipose cells and endothelial cells. The identification and evolution of cell populations in the bovine mammary gland during lactation is currently unknown. The objectives of this thesis were 1) to obtain a panel of biomarkers capable of identifying different cells within the mammary gland 2) to follow the evolution of these cells throughout a lactation cycle. The cell surface biomarkers (CD49f, CD24, CD10 and EpCAM) allowed us to phenotype two bovine mammary cell lines. We also used these cell biomarkers to phenotype cell populations during lactation.For this objective mammary gland explants were obtained by biopsies taken on 5 primiparous lactating cows at four different times during lactation. After the biopsies were digested, the cells obtained were phenotyped by flow cytometry. Analysis of the results revealed a positive correlation between the CD49f+ and CD49f+/CD24- cell populations and milk yield. We also found evidence that one cell population (CD49f-EpCAM-) was increased during lactation. In general these results suggest that biomarker expression can be utilized to identify the phenotype and the evolution of different cell types during lactation in the bovine mammary gland.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Ronette Gehring / Milk composition has a dynamic nature, and the composition varies with stage of lactation, age, breed, nutrition and health status of the udder. The changes in milk composition seem to match the changes in the expression of membrane proteins in secretory mammary epithelial cells that are needed for the movement of molecules from blood to milk and vice versa (Nouws and Ziv, 1982). Thus, an understanding of transporter expression, function and regulation in mammary epithelial cells can provide insight into mammary gland function and regulation. The goal of this project was to elucidate (molecularly and functionally) the role of drug transporters in the barrier function of an epithelial monolayer cultured from an immortalized bovine mammary epithelial cell line (BME-UV). To characterize the regulation (expression and function) of these drug transporters in BME-UV cells after exposure to cytokine TNF-α for selected periods of time. Representative members of drug transporters of the SLC (OCT and OAT) and ABC (P-glycoprotein) superfamilies were chosen for this project. In the first study, the involvement of a carrier-mediated transport system in the passage of organic cation (TEA) and anion (EsS) compounds was elucidated across the BME-UV monolayer. In the second study, molecular and functional expression of bOAT isoforms in BME-UV cells were studied. The final study characterized the effects of cytokine TNF-α on the expression and function of P-glycoprotein, an efflux pump, in BME-UV cells. Cytokine TNF-α exposure induced the expression of ABCB1 mRNA and increased P-glycoprotein production in BME-UV cells, resulting in a greater efflux of digoxin, a known P-glycoprotein substrate, back into the apical fluid. The expression, function, and regulation of these transporters in the mammary gland has important implications for understanding the barrier function of the mammary epithelium and, in more specific, for characterizing the role of these transporters in the accumulation and/or removal of specific substrates from milk and/or plasma. Moreover, this study provides an in vitro cell culture model of mammary epithelium to characterize mammary epithelial cell function during inflammation.

<p>  </p> <p>Breast cancer is a disease that impacts nearly one out of three women at some point in their life. Although the scientific community’s understanding of breast cancer development is actively researched, there is still a low 5-year survival rate of 30% following distant metastasis compared to the near 100% survival rate for localized disease. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a known contributor to metastasis. Cells that undergo EMT shed cell-to-cell junctions and become fibroblastic like cells with differential extracellular matrix organization and increased mesenchymal gene expression. This change allows for greater cell motility and invasive potential, critical for metastasis. Our recent studies with single cell RNA sequencing demonstrate distinct populations of epithelial and mesenchymal cells. Several components of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signaling are regulated during EMT. Fibroblast growth factor binding protein 1 (FGFBP1) is a known developmental factor that was observed at low expression in mesenchymal cells, with an unknown role in breast cancer. This study utilizes immunoblotting, mRNA analyses, immunofluorescence staining and novel 3D culture platform to investigate the regulation of FGFBP1 during EMT. FGFBP1 was consistently downregulated in HER2 transformed human mammary epithelial cells (HME2) during transforming growth factor β (TGF-Beta) induced EMT. Since FGFBP1 is acts as a secretory chaperone protein, secretion rate analysis was conducted at time periods throughout EMT showing rapid downregulation of secretion. Characterization of FGFBP1 regulation during EMT could lead to greater understanding of EMT and possibly a more sensitive marker for EMT relative to the current known markers.</p>

Endothelial cells separate the bloodstream from the underlying tissue and play a crucial role in vascular homeostasis. They also form an important barrier for vascular drug delivery. This thesis contains preliminary studies targeted at understanding the mechanisms of binding and transport across endothelial cells cultured in vitro. Specifically, the first study investigates how the recombinant source of Factor IX (FIX), a blood coagulant protein used in the treatment of Hemophilia B, impacts surface ligand binding (FIX to its specific receptors) to bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). Competitive binding experiments between 125I-FIX and FIX were undertaken to quantify the interaction of recombinant and transgenic FIX with BAECs and human collagen IV and determine if there was a measurable difference in binding affinity. Results indicate limited specific binding of 125I-FIX to BAECs and no binding to human collagen IV. Concrete conclusions were not drawn from this data due to technical issues during the experimental process. The second study investigates insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) transport across both BAEC and MAC-T cells, a mammary epithelial cell line, cultured on tissue culture inserts. IGF-I is a circulatory growth factor implicated in the regulation of cell division and tissue proliferation. Competitive binding experiments between 125I-IGF-I and unlabeled protein (IGF-I, Y60L-IGF-I, a mutant of IGF-I, and IGF Binding Protein-3 (IGFBP-3)) were undertaken to quantify the binding and transport of IGF-I under various experimental conditions. Results confirmed earlier work from the Williams' laboratory indicating that 125I-IGF-I transport was enhanced by incubation with its non-receptor-binding analog, Y60L-IGF-I, but cell surface associated 125I-IGF-I was decreased by its presence. Other studies were undertaken but conclusive results could not be drawn. / Master of Science

L’intensification des pratiques d’élevage s’est accompagnée de l’émergence de pathologies de production, notamment des mammites. Il s’agit d’une inflammation de la glande mammaire, d’origine bactérienne dans la majeure partie des cas. Les mammites constituent à elles seules la première source de pertes financières des cheptels bovins laitiers en France et dans le monde. Néanmoins aucun traitement prophylactique ne permet à ce jour une action préventive à long terme. Parmi les agents étiologiques majeurs des mammites, Escherichia coli (E. coli) tient son importance du fait de sa prévalence et de son impact sur les rendements et la qualité du lait. La part des facteurs de l’hôte dans la capacité à éliminer le pathogène causal est relativement avérée, tandis que le lien entre caractéristiques bactériennes et sévérité de l’infection est plus délicat à établir. Cette étude s’attache donc à déterminer si les interactions entre E. coli et la glande mammaire, en particulier les cellules épithéliales mammaires (CEM) et les neutrophiles, peuvent expliquer des degrés de sévérité variables. L’influence du lait sur ces interactions a également été investiguée. / Along with agricultural intensification of animal production, some pathologies have emerge, especially mastitis. This disease corresponds to an inflammation of the udder, and is generally provoked by bacterial infection. Mastitis on their own constitute the main source of financial impairments within dairy herds in France and worldwide. So far, there is no treatment able to prevent mastitis over time. Among major mastitis pathogens Escherichia coli (E. coli) is of great importance, because of its prevalence and its impacts on milk yield and quality. The mastitis severity has proven to be linked to host factors, but the implication of bacterial characteristics remains unknown. Thus, this study aimed at deciphering whether interactions between E. coli and the mammary gland, especially the mammary epithelial cells (MECs) and neutrophils, may explain a variability in mastitis severity. Influence of milk on these interactions was also investigated.