The high incidence of upper respiratory diseases, contamination of waterways due to pathogens and nutrients from human and animal wastes, unsustainable deforestation, gender disparities in burden of disease due to unequal exposure to indoor air pollutants, and carbon black emissions from the burning of solid fuels are interrelated problems in many developing countries. Small scale anaerobic digestion provides a means of alleviating these problems by treating livestock waste onsite to produce biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) in rural areas in developing countries. Fuel can then be used for cooking, lighting, and heating. Methane fuel is an alternative to traditional three-stone fires, improved cook stoves, and liquid petroleum gas. However, there is a lack of information available on design methods for these systems. The goal of this research was to develop a design tool that could be used for anaerobic digester sizing based on livestock waste availability. An Excel spreadsheet model was developed for sizing the bioreactor and the gas container based upon recommended values from a literature review. Needed monitoring parameters for operation of an anaerobic digester in the field were identified and standard methods of analysis were recommended. Sample preservation techniques were detailed. Guidelines for pathogen reduction in thermophilic anaerobic digestion were identified. Further study of pathogen reduction in low temperature reactors currently in use in developing countries was recommended. Three digester designs included in the Excel spreadsheet model were: the polyethylene tubular digester, the floating drum digester, and the fixed dome digester. The design tool may be requested from Dr. Sarina Ergas, sergas(at)usf.edu. An organic loading rate of 1.0 kg VS/(m3*d) was chosen for use in the design tool based upon a review of the literature. A semi-empirical kinetic model was developed for defining the SRT based on the temperature inputted by the user. Three case studies, based upon livestock waste availability in a rural community in the Dominican Republic, were analyzed using the sizing design tool. The case studies were conducted on three scales: one household, six households, and a village of 48 households. The specific biogas production rates were, for Case Studies one through three, respectively, 0.0076, 0.0069, and 0.010 m3 biogas/kg Volatile Solids reduced. Additional future work included: characterization of human feces and guinea pig manure, laboratory and field testing of the Excel spreadsheet design tool, and promotion of anaerobic digesters by development workers, non-governmental organizations, and governments.

Anaerobic digestion is the process by which organic carbon is converted into biogas in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Both of these products are greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Therefore if anaerobic reactors are improperly maintained and biogas is leaked or intentionally released into the atmosphere because biogas production exceeds household demand, these reactors may become generators of greenhouse gas emissions instead of sustainable energy producers. The objective of this research was to develop a framework to assess if the demand for biogas by a rural adopter of an anaerobic digester matched with the associated local gas production. A literature review of the energy required to prepare commonly consumed food of rice and beans was conducted to establish required household biogas volumes. This review determined that 0.06 m3 of methane was required to prepare a half a kg of rice (on a dry weight basis) and 0.06 m3 of methane was required to prepare a half a kg of beans (on a dry weight basis). Furthermore an analysis of occupants of a rural Panamanian town was performed along with a design model for rural anaerobic reactor gas production to determine if an overproduction of biogas would occur if anaerobic reactors were built for families who owned swine. It was determined using this approach that all of the fifteen household would experience an overproduction of biogas based on household demand of methane and therefore would risk the release of greenhouse gases. Household size ranged from one to seven occupants and swine ownership ranged from one to fifteen per household. The differences of biogas supply with respect to demand from these fifteen situations ranged from 0.09 to 0.35 m3 of a biogas with 40% methane and 0.27 to 6.17 m3 of excess biogas with a methane content of 70% per household per day. An average of 0.45 m3 of a biogas with 40% methane per household per day was calculated and 0.87m3 for 70% methane for all fifteen households, excluding one outlier. However, because this research uses a model based on plug flow reactor mechanics, results may produce varied results from other studies concerning small scale anaerobic digestion.

Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) has been widely used in municipal wastewater treatment, but no previous studies have examined the application of EBPR to treat dairy manure. This study was conducted to evaluate the (i) performance of pilot-scale EBPR systems treating liquid dairy manure, to balance the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus in manure to meet crop nutrient requirements, (ii) effects of dissolved oxygen and solids retention time on the efficiency of EBPR, and (iii) effectiveness of gravity thickening for reducing the volume of harvested EBPR aerated mixed liquor. Two pilot-scale EBPR systems were used in this study. The ratio of the manure chemical oxygen demand expressed as volatile fatty acids to phosphorus used ranged from 18:1 to 45:1. The phosphorus removal efficiencies of the EBPR system were investigated at three solids retention times (4, 6 and 10 d), and three dissolved oxygen levels (3, 4 and 6 mg O₂/L). The total phosphorus removal was highest (84%) at 10 d solids retention time and lowest (63%) at 4 d solids retention time. The sludge from the 6 d solids retention time tests had better sludge settling characteristics with a sludge volume index of 62 mL/g compared to 80 mL/g for the 4 d solids retention time. The EBPR system achieved 90% dissolved reactive phosphorus removal when the system was operated at 4 mg O₂/L, and the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus in effluent increased to about 5:1, which was higher than the normal ratio in dairy manure. On the other hand, phosphorus removal performance deteriorated when dissolved oxygen level was 3 mg O₂/L. In the gravity thickening tests, 93-95 % total suspended solids (TSS) was removed from the settled supernatant, with 1.2 to 1.54 % total solids (TS) in the settled solids after 90 min gravity-induced thickening. The extent of phosphorus release during gravity thickening process needs to be further investigated. / Master of Science

O setor leiteiro brasileiro caracterizado por um grande número de produtores, que, porém, apresentam baixos índices de produtividade e qualidade. Em relação à qualidade, necessária a implantação de sistemas de resfriamento e conservação do leite na fazenda. Contudo, o investimento nesse tipo de equipamento muitas vezes inviabilizado pelos baixos volumes de produção, bem como pela não disponibilidade de energia elétrica na área rural. Nesse contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho determinar qual a configuração ótima para o sistema de resfriamento de leite de uma fazenda leiteira de pequeno ou médio porte, que será inserida em um projeto de digestão anaeróbica no âmbito do Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo do Protocolo de Kyoto, implementado por uma empresa interessada na comercialização dos créditos de carbono. Como esse projeto disponibilizará ao produtor um insumo energético renovável e de baixo custo (o biogás resultante da digestão), a determinação da configuração ótima considerou dois possíveis cenários: o de um produtor que ainda não conta com um sistema para resfriamento de leite in loco, e o de um produtor que já conta com esse sistema, acionado por energia elétrica, e estuda a viabilidade de investir na geração de energia usando o biogás na substituição da energia elétrica adquirida da rede pública de distribuição. Foram analisados os aspectos técnicos ligados ao dimensionamento das configurações, avaliação do consumo dos diferentes insumos energéticos e quantificação dos créditos de carbono, bem como os aspectos econômicos envolvidos (investimentos, custos operacionais e de manutenção, recursos advindos da comercialização dos créditos de carbono). Foi também avaliado o impacto da introdução do sistema de refrigeração nos custos de produção do litro do leite e nos valores recebidos pelo produtor na venda do produto. A análise mostra que a utilização de um gerador acionado por um motor de combustão interna de ciclo Otto movido a biogás a melhor configuração para um novo sistema. Para sistemas já existentes, a substituição da compra de energia elétrica por geração in loco também uma alternativa interessante, ainda que apresente um tempo de retorno de investimento relativamente elevado para os padrões brasileiros. / The Brazilian dairy sector is characterized by a great number of producers, presenting low productivity and product quality. Concerning to quality, it is necessary the implantation of cooling systems for milk and conservation on farm. However, a low milk production level and the electric power availability on rural areas sometimes make unfeasible investments on these types of coolers. In this context, the goal of this work is to determine the best configuration of a milk cooling system for small and medium-scale dairy farms to be included in an anaerobic digestion project based on the Clean Development Mechanism of the Protocol of Kyoto. Such project is to be implemented by a company interested in commercialize the carbon credits generated. Once the project will provide to the farmer a renewable and low-cost energy resource (the biogas resulting of the anaerobic digestion), it was considered two possible sceneries: a producer that does not count on a cooling system, and a producer that may want to replace purchased electricity by a generation system based on a biogas-fueled engine to power an already existing system for milk cooling. The work analyzed several technical aspects connected to cooling system sizing, feasible configurations for supplying the cooling demand, evaluation of the consumption of the different energy inputs (electricity and biogas) of considered configurations. It was evaluated the carbon credits generation, as well as the involved economical aspects (investments, operational and maintenance costs, earnings from commercialization of carbon credits). It was also evaluated the impact of introducing the cooling system on milk production costs and values received by the producer. The analysis shows that a biogas-fueled Otto-engine electrical generator is the best configuration for a new system, and that the replacement of the electric power purchase for generation on farm is also an interesting alternative, although its payback time is relatively high for Brazilian standards.

O setor leiteiro brasileiro caracterizado por um grande número de produtores, que, porém, apresentam baixos índices de produtividade e qualidade. Em relação à qualidade, necessária a implantação de sistemas de resfriamento e conservação do leite na fazenda. Contudo, o investimento nesse tipo de equipamento muitas vezes inviabilizado pelos baixos volumes de produção, bem como pela não disponibilidade de energia elétrica na área rural. Nesse contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho determinar qual a configuração ótima para o sistema de resfriamento de leite de uma fazenda leiteira de pequeno ou médio porte, que será inserida em um projeto de digestão anaeróbica no âmbito do Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo do Protocolo de Kyoto, implementado por uma empresa interessada na comercialização dos créditos de carbono. Como esse projeto disponibilizará ao produtor um insumo energético renovável e de baixo custo (o biogás resultante da digestão), a determinação da configuração ótima considerou dois possíveis cenários: o de um produtor que ainda não conta com um sistema para resfriamento de leite in loco, e o de um produtor que já conta com esse sistema, acionado por energia elétrica, e estuda a viabilidade de investir na geração de energia usando o biogás na substituição da energia elétrica adquirida da rede pública de distribuição. Foram analisados os aspectos técnicos ligados ao dimensionamento das configurações, avaliação do consumo dos diferentes insumos energéticos e quantificação dos créditos de carbono, bem como os aspectos econômicos envolvidos (investimentos, custos operacionais e de manutenção, recursos advindos da comercialização dos créditos de carbono). Foi também avaliado o impacto da introdução do sistema de refrigeração nos custos de produção do litro do leite e nos valores recebidos pelo produtor na venda do produto. A análise mostra que a utilização de um gerador acionado por um motor de combustão interna de ciclo Otto movido a biogás a melhor configuração para um novo sistema. Para sistemas já existentes, a substituição da compra de energia elétrica por geração in loco também uma alternativa interessante, ainda que apresente um tempo de retorno de investimento relativamente elevado para os padrões brasileiros. / The Brazilian dairy sector is characterized by a great number of producers, presenting low productivity and product quality. Concerning to quality, it is necessary the implantation of cooling systems for milk and conservation on farm. However, a low milk production level and the electric power availability on rural areas sometimes make unfeasible investments on these types of coolers. In this context, the goal of this work is to determine the best configuration of a milk cooling system for small and medium-scale dairy farms to be included in an anaerobic digestion project based on the Clean Development Mechanism of the Protocol of Kyoto. Such project is to be implemented by a company interested in commercialize the carbon credits generated. Once the project will provide to the farmer a renewable and low-cost energy resource (the biogas resulting of the anaerobic digestion), it was considered two possible sceneries: a producer that does not count on a cooling system, and a producer that may want to replace purchased electricity by a generation system based on a biogas-fueled engine to power an already existing system for milk cooling. The work analyzed several technical aspects connected to cooling system sizing, feasible configurations for supplying the cooling demand, evaluation of the consumption of the different energy inputs (electricity and biogas) of considered configurations. It was evaluated the carbon credits generation, as well as the involved economical aspects (investments, operational and maintenance costs, earnings from commercialization of carbon credits). It was also evaluated the impact of introducing the cooling system on milk production costs and values received by the producer. The analysis shows that a biogas-fueled Otto-engine electrical generator is the best configuration for a new system, and that the replacement of the electric power purchase for generation on farm is also an interesting alternative, although its payback time is relatively high for Brazilian standards.

A pilot scale nitrogen (N) removal system was constructed and operated for approximately 365 days and was designed to remove inorganic total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) from solids-separated dairy manure. An anaerobic fermenter, upstream of the N removal reactor, produced volatile fatty acids (VFAs), to be used as an electron donor to fuel denitrification, and TAN at a COD:N ratio of 18:1. However, sufficient amounts of non-VFA COD was produced by the fermenter to fuel the denitrification reaction at an average NO3- removal rate of 5.3 ± 2 mg/L NO₃--N. Total ammonia N was removed from the fermenter effluent in an N removal reactor where a series of aerobic and anoxic zones facilitated aerobic TAN oxidation and anoxic NO₃- and NO₂- reduction. The minimum dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration allowing for complete TAN removal was found to be 0.8 mg/L. However, TAN removal rates were less than predicted using default nitrifying kinetic parameters in BioWin®, a biological modeling simulator, which indicated the presence of a nitrification inhibitor in fermented dairy manure. Furthermore, an N balance during the aerobic zone indicated that simultaneous nitrification-denitrification (SND) was occurring in the aerobic zone of the N removal reactor and was most apparent at DO concentrations below 1.3 mg/L. A series of nitrite generation rate (NGR) experiments confirmed the presence of an inhibitor in fermented dairy manure. A model sensitivity analysis determined that the most sensitive ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) kinetic parameters were the maximum specific growth rate, , and the substrate half saturation coefficient, . Nitrifying inhibition terms of competitive, non-competitive, mixed competitive, and un-competitive were applied to the growth rate equation in BioWin® but an accurate representation of the observed TAN removal rates in the pilot scale system could not be found by adjusting the kinetic parameters alone. Reducing the default BioWin® hydrolysis rate by approximately 50% produced a more accurate calibration for all inhibition terms tested indicating that the hydrolyization of organic N in dairy manure is less than typical municipal waste water. / Master of Science