Introduction: Genetic rearrangements in Ewing sarcoma, prostate, and leukemia cells result in activation of oncogenic ETS transcription factor fusions. Mithramycin (MTM) has been identified as an inhibitor of EWS-FLI1 transcription factor, a gene fusion product responsible for oncogenesis in Ewing sarcoma. Despite preclinical success, a phase I/II clinical trial testing MTM therapy in refractory Ewing sarcoma was terminated. Liver and blood toxicities resulted in dose de-escalation and sub-therapeutic exposures. However, the promise of selectively targeting oncogenic ETS transcription factors like EWS-FLI1 prompted us to undertake the discovery of more selective, less toxic analogues of MTM. MTM is a potent inhibitor of ubiquitous SP1 transcription factor, likely inducing non-specific toxicity. In collaboration with two medicinal chemistry groups, two semi-synthetic efforts were implemented to develop novel analogues of MTM. The first effort utilized the biosynthetic product mithramycin SA (MTMSA) to modify C3-side chain. The second effort utilized an oxime linker directly formed on MTM’s C3-side chain (MTM-oxime; MTMox). Here I present the pharmacological assessment of over 75 novel MTM analogues towards selectively targeting oncogenic ETS transcription factors, like EWS-FLI1, over ubiquitous transcription factors, like SP1. Methods: Novel MTM analogues were evaluated for selective cytotoxicity against ETS fusion-dependent cell lines. Selectively cytotoxic analogues were evaluated for inhibitory effects on several gene promoters in TC-32 reporter cell lines, a Ewing sarcoma cell line dependent on EWS-FLI1, transfected with luciferase reporter vector. Cloned reporter vectors incorporated NR0B1 (EWS-FLI1 binding), β-actin (SP1 binding) and CMV (non-specific) gene promoters. Furthermore, gene (mRNA) and protein expression changes of EWS-FLI1 and SP1, as well as regulated target genes, namely NR0B1, VEGFA and BCL-2 were evaluated with MTM analogue treatments. The MTM analogues with most selective activity in vitro were administered to mice by intravenous bolus dose for pharmacokinetic analysis. The MTM analogues with highest systemic exposure from each semi-synthetic effort, namely MTMSA-Trp-A10 and MTMox-24, were further evaluated. Metabolic stabilities in whole blood, plasma, and tumor cell matrices, and across multiple species were compared with MTM. Moreover, intrinsic hepatic clearances were estimated using mouse liver microsomes. Tumor and liver distributions were estimated in tumor bearing mice. Additionally, the effect of organic anionic transporter polypeptides (OATP) on distribution of MTM was investigated. Maximum tolerated doses were evaluated for lead MTM analogues, having both selective activities in vitro and high systemic exposure, compared to MTM. Complete blood cell counts and plasma alanine aminotransferase activity were measured to evaluate dose-dependent blood and liver toxicities, respectively. ETS fusion-dependent and non-dependent cell lines were implanted subcutaneously into immunocompromised mice for efficacy studies. Average tumor volumes and survival were tracked for mice receiving treatment, compared to MTM and vehicle treatment. Results: Evaluation of MTM analogues from both semi-synthetic efforts revealed that conjugation of MTM C3-side chain with tryptophan (Trp) and/or phenylalanine (Phe) improved selective cytotoxicity against ETS fusion-dependent cell lines. This was highlighted by MTMSA-Trp-A2 (also refer to as MTMSA-Phe-Trp) and MTMSA-Trp-A10 (also refer to as MTMSA-Trp-Trp), with selective indices of 19.1 and 15.6, respectively, compared to MTM (1.5). Similarly, MTMox-23 (also refer to as MTMox-Phe-Trp) and MTMox-20 (also refer to as MTMox-Trp) had selectivity indices of 4.6 and 4.5, respectively. These selectively cytotoxic MTM analogues inhibited EWS-FLI1-mediated transcription 10-fold more effectively than both non-specific CMV-mediated and SP1-mediated (via β-actin promoter) transcription in TC-32 reporter cell lines. Moreover, gene (mRNA) and protein expression of EWS-FLI1 and regulated gene, NR0B1, were inhibited with MTM analogue treatment (GI50, 6-hour) in TC-32 cells. Similarly, SP1 and target genes, VEGFA and BCL-2, gene (mRNA) and protein expressions were also inhibited with MTM analogue treatment (GI50, 6-hour) in TC-32 cells. Conjugation of Trp and/or Phe to C3-side chain of MTM increased systemic exposure in vivo. Most impressively, the addition of two Trp residues, namely MTMSA-Trp-A10 and MTMox-24 (also refer to as MTMox-Trp-Trp), resulted in systemic exposure increases of 218- and 42-fold, respectively, after intravenous (IV) bolus dose. Metabolically, tryptophan/phenylalanine conjugated MTM analogues are liable to esterase activity on carboxy-methyl functional group. Very rapid de-methylation in biological matrix was observed with MTMox-24, compared to MTMSA-Trp-A10, suggesting a regiospecific effect. However, esterase activity was limited to rodent matrices and demethylation occurred at significantly diminished rates in non-human primate and human plasma. MTM analogues were not susceptible to p450-mediated metabolism, with negligible loss in mouse liver microsome assay compared to verapamil control. MTM (1mg/kg) and MTMox-24 (6mg/kg) were detected in subcutaneously implanted (flank) LL2 tumors and liver homogenates after IV bolus dose. Interestingly, MTMSA-Trp-A10 (2mg/kg) was not. Despite a 3-fold increase in systemic exposure with rifampin oral pretreatment, an OATP inhibitor, exposure of MTM was unaffected in Oatp knockout mouse model. Exposure of MTM in liver tissue was 8.4-fold higher compared to tumor tissue with low tissue clearance. This agrees with the lack of metabolism observed in liver microsomes and may provide a mechanism for clinically observed liver toxicity. MTMSATrp-A10 had a single maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of 0.75mg/kg, compared to 1mg/kg for MTM, administered by IV bolus. In contrast, MTM-oxime analogues (MTMox-20, -23, -24 and -25) had single maximum tolerated doses of 20 – 25mg/kg. These increased tolerances are the result of additive differences in whole blood stability, cytotoxicity and systemic exposure. At a dose of 0.75mg/kg, administered every 3 days, MTMSA-Trp-A10 did not result in an efficacious result in tumor xenograft studies. These studies remain under further investigation, but the result may indicate high plasma protein binding of MTMSA-Trp-A10 and lack of free fraction available within tumor. The most selective MTM-oxime analogue in vitro, MTMox-23, significantly inhibited TC-32 (EWS-FLI1+) tumor xenograft growth (p=0.0025, day 16, one-way ANOVA multiple comparisons test) compared to MTM (p=0.1174, day 16) and extending survival for 17 days out of 48 days on study (p=0.0003, Log Rank (Mantel-Cox) single comparison test) with treatment at MTD every 3 days, compared to vehicle. Additionally, the MTM-oxime analogue with highest systemic exposure, MTMox-24, also significantly inhibited TC-32 (EWS-FLI1+) tumor xenograft growth (p=0.0003, day 21, one-way ANOVA multiple comparisons test) compared to MTM (p=0.032, day 21) and extending survival for 12 days out of 37 days on study (p=0.0004, Log Rank (Mantel-Cox) single comparison test) with treatment, compared to vehicle. Conclusion: These studies in whole highlight the importance of exposure (pharmacokinetics; PK), toxicity and efficacy (pharmacodynamics; PD) relationships. The cytotoxicity and high systemic exposure of MTMSA-Trp-A10 directly contributes to its lower tolerated dose. However, despite a similar tolerated dose to MTM, systemic exposure remains 163-fold higher at the MTD. High systemic exposure may be attributed to high plasma protein binding, but also reduces the exposure of free MTMSA-Trp-A10 within the tumor tissue, which drives the efficacious response. In contrast, the less cytotoxic and rapidly de-methylated MTM-oxime analogues allow for 25-fold higher tolerances in mice. This unique metabolism and clearance may prevent exposures required to induced systemic blood and liver toxicities induced by MTM. Moreover, at these highly tolerated doses, the initial systemic exposure at MTD is highest among analogues tested, which resulted in an efficacious response with MTMox-23 and MTMox-24 treatment in tumor xenograft models. It remains to be determined if these PK/PD relationships can be reproduced in additional animal models, including human, without inducing toxicity. Nonetheless, these initial studies in mice demonstrate that a more selective, more tolerated analogue of MTM has potential for clinical success in treating ETS fusion-dependent tumors.

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Problématique : Le cancer du sein est un des types du cancer les plus diagnostiqués au Canada et il est une cause majeure de mortalité liée au cancer chez la femme. Le cancer du sein triple négatif (CSTN) a un mauvais pronostic dû à son agressivité clinique et à l’absence de réponse aux traitements habituels du cancer du sein tels que l’hormonothérapie et l’inhibition de HER2. En ce moment, les avancées pour le CSTN restent très négligeables. Il y a un besoin urgent d’identifier une nouvelle thérapie qui ciblerait les voies signalétiques pro-métastatiques du cancer du sein triple négatif et ainsi, bloquer idéalement la prolifération et la dissémination métastatique des cellules cancéreuses. Cadre conceptuel : Dernièrement le laboratoire de Sylvain Meloche à l’IRIC a montré qu’une déplétion génétique de ERK3 (Extracellular Regulated Kinase 3) inhibe la croissance des tumeurs mammaires dans un modèle de souris de CSTN et bloque la progression métastatique. Ainsi, suite à ces résultats, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’inhibition de ERK3 à l’aide de molécules engendrerait une diminution de la prolifération cellulaire au niveau du cancer du sein triple négatif. L’objectif principal du projet est de développer des molécules ayant des propriétés inhibitrices de ERK3 in vitro. Les deux objectifs secondaires sont d’évaluer leur potentiel d’inhibition vis-à-vis ERK3 dans des modèles in cellulo et de confirmer, parallèlement à la relation structure-activité (SAR), leur mode de liaison par des méthodes computationnelles. Méthodologie : Des composés tête de série ont été identifiés à la suite d’un criblage à haut débit d’une librairie d’inhibiteurs de kinases. Quelques composés intéressants démontrent une activité dont les IC50 (concentration inhibant 50% de l’activité de la kinase) sont inférieurs à 300 nM. Une molécule en particulier a été retenue compte tenu de son niveau d’activité et de sélectivité par rapport aux autres kinases. Une modification systématique des groupements fonctionnels lors de la synthèse d’analogues nous permet d’établir de façon claire le mode de liaison et ainsi, établir la SAR de notre composé tête de série et le site de liaison de ERK3. Les tests d’inhibition compétitifs in vitro seront effectués à l’IRIC à partir de la protéine ERK3 purifiée. Grâce à la SAR établie, on poursuit l’optimisation avec l’intégration de groupements moléculaires solubilisants qui vont permettre d’augmenter les propriétés pharmacocinétiques et ainsi, augmenter l’activité cellulaire de notre composé tête de série. En dernier lieu, à l’aide de la modélisation computationnelle, le mode de liaison de la molécule à ERK3 sera élucidé de façon à confirmer la SAR et aussi, permettre le développement de nouvelles structures (ex : bioisotères) pouvant avoir aussi une activité inhibitrice sur ERK3. Résultats : Une SAR étendue basée sur l’inhibiteur sélectionné a été obtenue. Un inhibiteur de ERK3 possédant une puissance cellulaire (IC50) de 2 μM a été synthétisé. Retombée scientifique : Les travaux effectués dans le cadre de ma maîtrise pourraient conduire au développement de nouveaux traitements pour le cancer du sein triple négatif en ciblant les voies de signalisation prométastatiques à l’aide de molécules inhibitrices. / Problem: Breast cancer is one of the most diagnosed type of cancer in Canada and it is a major cause of mortality linked to cancer for women. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the form with the worse prognostic compared to the other forms of breast cancer due to clinical aggressiveness and the absence of response to conventional hormonal therapy and HER2 inhibition therapy. At this time, therapeutic advances for TNBC remain very negligible, which testifies to a need for a new therapy that would target the prometastatic signaling pathways of triple negative breast cancer and thus, ideally block the proliferation and the metastatic dissemination of cancer cells. Conceptual Basis: Recently, Sylvain Meloche's laboratory at IRIC showed that genetic depletion of ERK3 (Extracellular Regulated Kinase 3) inhibits the growth of mammary tumors in a TBNC mouse model and blocks metastatic progression. Thus, in view of these results, our hypothesis is that the inhibition of ERK3 using a specific inhibitor would cause a decrease in cell proliferation in triple negative breast cancer. The main objective of my project is to develop small molecules with inhibitory properties of ERK3 in vitro. The two secondary objectives are to evaluate their inhibitory potential toward ERK3 in cellulo models and to confirm, alongside the structure-activity relationship (SAR), the binding mode of inhibitors to ERK3 by computational methods. Methodology: Lead compounds have been identified following a high-throughput screening of a kinase inhibitor library. A few interesting compounds emerged with activities below 300 nM (IC50). One molecule in particular was chosen given its good selectivity as well as an acceptable inhibitory activity. Systematic modification of functional groups for analogs synthesis allows us to clearly establish the binding mode and thus, establish the SAR of our lead compound. The competitive inhibition tests in vitro have been carried out at IRIC using purified ERK3. With the established SAR, optimization is continued with the integration of solubilizing molecular groups which will increase the pharmacokinetic properties and thus increase the cellular activity of our lead compound.7 Finally, with the help of computational modeling, the binding mode of the molecule to ERK3 will be elucidated to confirm the SAR and also, allow the development of new structures (i.e. bioisosters) that can have an inhibitory activity on ERK3. Results: An extensive SAR of the inhibitor is obtained. A compound with 2 μM activity (IC50) on ERK3 in cell has been synthesized. Scientific outlook: The work done as part of my master's degree could lead to the development of a new treatment for triple-negative breast cancer by targeting prometastatic signaling pathways using small inhibitory molecules.

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<p>Sialic acid synthase (NeuB) is a key enzyme in bacterial biosynthesis of the sialic acid <em>N</em>-acetylneuraminic acid (NeuNAc). It catalyzes the addition of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to <em>N</em>-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) in the presence of a divalent cation such as Mn²⁺. We have explored the inhibition of NeuB by an oxacarbenium ion mimic, NeuNAc oxime, and hydroxylamine (NH₂OH). NeuNAc oxime shows slow-binding inhibition with a binding half-life of 2.5 h and an inhibition constant (<em>K</em>_i^*) of 1.6(± 0.7) pM. Even though NeuNAc oxime binds NeuB with high affinity, there remains approximately 10% residual activity even after extended pre-incubation with high inhibitor concentrations. In contrast, in the presence of substrates, when NeuB was actively catalyzing NeuNAc synthesis, complete inhibition by NeuNAc oxime was observed within 6 h. This inhibition profile is similar to NH₂OH; which has previously been shown to elicit complete, time-dependent inhibition. We propose the existence of two NeuB conformations: an asymmetric idle state conformation (NeuB^IS), in which NeuNAc oxime is able to bind to only one monomer of this dimeric enzyme, and a second conformation, running state NeuB (NeuB^RS), which is completely inhibited due to either NeuNAc oxime binding to the second monomer, or the dimer adopting a conformation in which the unbound monomer is inactive. Experiments with [1-¹⁴C]PEP showed that in the presence of large excess of substrate, inhibition occurred faster than with a lower excess. This suggests that a sustained buildup of NeuB^{RS<strong> </strong>}is required for complete inhibition.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

In this work, I designed and synthesized two different classes of compounds capable of binding to the YTH domain of the YTHDF1-3 proteins. The first class of inhibitors includes ebselen analogs, an organoselenium compound that emerged as the top hit from a high-throughput screening of an in-house compound library; the second class is derived from a computational study. The YTHDF1-3 reader proteins are a class of three highly conserved paralogs that selectively recognize and bind the m6A modification on mRNA. They represent an emerging target in cancer research because m6A regulates several critical biological functions, triggering a cascade of events or directly modulating almost every aspect of tumorigenesis and cancer progression. The interest in targeting these proteins is a growing and recent cutting-edge focus. At the beginning of this thesis, no inhibitors capable of interfering with the m6A recognition process of the YTHDF1-3 proteins were described. Ebselen is a covalent drug capable of forming a selenium-sulfur bond with the cysteine residue located near the YTH domain of the YTHDF1-3 proteins, thereby interfering with the m6A binding process. This work investigated the role of the covalent warhead, which can be either a selenium or a sulfur atom. Furthermore, supported by covalent docking calculations, several analogs were designed and synthesized by modifying the molecular structure of ebselen to improve potency, selectivity, and physicochemical properties. The analogs were purified, fully characterized (NMR spectroscopy, MS spectrometry) and were then tested in an homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) assay to assess their affinity for the target, resulting in low single digit micromolar IC50. In addition, selected compounds were co-crystallized with the YTH domain of the YTHDF1 protein to further demonstrate the covalent binding mechanism of action and to study the effects of the binding on protein conformation. The second hit compound studied in this thesis (m6A71) is able to non-covalently bind the YTH domain of the YTHDF1 protein. The molecular structure of this hit was analyzed to determine the pharmacophore and several analogs were synthesized. In addition, docking calculations were performed to aid in the design of selected analogs and to initiate the lead optimization. The obtained analogs were then evaluated in an HTRF assay and other orthogonal biochemical assays (e.g. RNA electrophoretic mobility shift assay - REMSA), providing valuable insight into the molecular structural features required for the target interactions, that could be further explored and optimized.

<p>The proteasome is a multi-catalytic, multiprotein enzymatic machinery that is responsible for most of the protein degradation in the cell. Cellular protein homeostasis through the proteasome is regulated through the ubiquitin-independent or ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway, which both utilize different isoforms of the enzymatic machinery. Over the past twenty years, the proteasome has been a well-validated therapeutic target by inhibition of its catalytic particle function, and more recently, through targeted protein degradation with the use of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs). Inhibition of the proteasome’s catalytic function has been previously shown to be therapeutically advantageous due to the need for high proteasomal activity for the survival of hematological cancer cells, which produce an overabundance of misfolded and unwanted proteins. Despite this success, off-target toxicities and drug-resistant mechanisms remain as dose-limiting factors for proteasome catalytic inhibition. Herein, we describe a variety of peptidomimetic (or “peptide-like”) approaches that target the proteasome beyond standard catalytic inhibition to serve as alternative therapies for hematological cancer. We investigate <em>(1)</em> the preferential structural properties of peptide-conjugated unnatural substrates for different proteasome isoforms’ substrate channels, <em>(2)</em> the effectiveness of an immunoproteasome-targeting peptide-conjugated prodrug strategy, and <em>(3)</em> the unknown binding site of a peptoid probe on the proteasome’s non-catalytic ubiquitin receptor, Rpn-13. This work not only showcases novel strategies to target the proteasome system but also describes methods that could be applied to other challenging enzymes or non-catalytic protein targets.</p>

Deregulated activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway is central to many human malignancies. The functions of this pathway are critical for normal cell metabolism, proliferation, and survival. In lung cancers, the PI3K pathway activity is often aberrantly driven by multiple mutations, including EGFR, KRAS, and PIK3CA. Molecules targeting the PI3K pathway are intensely investigated as potential anti-cancer agents. Although inhibitors of the pathway are currently in clinical trials, rational and targeted use of these compounds, alone or in combination, requires an understanding of isoform-specific activity in context. We sought to identify class IA PI3K enzyme (p110a/PIK3CA, p110b/PIK3CB, p110d/PIK3CD) activities using isoform-specific inhibitors in a lung cancer model system. Treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines with PIK3CA, PIK3CB, PIK3CD or PIK3CB/D inhibitors resulted in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic responses that frequently tracked with a specific mutation status. Activation of PIK3CA dictated response to the PIK3CA-specific inhibitor while deletion of PTEN phosphatase indicated response to the PIK3CB inhibitor. The PIK3CD isoform-specific inhibitors lacked efficacy in all NSCLC cell lines tested, however treatment at increased concentrations likely provide concurrent inhibition of both PIK3CB/D isoforms improving activity of either agent alone but did not track with a single biomarker. The observed pharmacodynamic and proliferation responses to isoform-specific inhibitors suggested that PI3K isoforms may functionally compensate for loss of another in certain genetic backgrounds. These studies demonstrate unanticipated cellular responses to PI3K isoform inhibition in NSCLC, suggesting that patient populations with specific mutations can benefit from certain isoform-selective inhibitors, or combinations, allowing for rational and targeted clinical use of these agents.