Magister Artium - MA / This study falls within the framework of the larger multidisciplinary university health initiative (MUTHI) objectives to investigate and document the use of local medicinal plants for the treatment of HIV and symptoms of related opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis, thrush and shingles in the Western Cape. The study stems from twelve months fieldwork in Strand, Western Cape and the collection of plants from Mpoza, Eastern Cape for a variety of reasons. The study ethnographically documents when, under which circumstances and where plants are collected for use.As far as I am aware this is the first anthropological study which "follows" traditional healers in the Western Cape to a site in the Eastern Cape where they collect plants. Seventeen plants were collected from different genera which traditional healers reported to use as treatment for suspected HIV and related symptoms. For each plant I describe the medicinal uses,preparatory techniques and plant parts used as suggested by traditional healers. I also explore healer's aetiologies concerning plants, treatments and the social-material relations which are prevalent in my research settings.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Medicinal plants remain a very important natural resource used as traditional medicines for health needs in many developing countries. In the current deepening economic and political crises in Zimbabwe a significant number of the population has inevitably relied more on natural resources which has led to receding population and scarcity of many medicinal plant species in their natural habitat. It is against this background that this research, using Rural Eastern Zimbabwe that this study explored the extent to which use values of medicinal plants increased since the Zimbabwean crises and the different use values of these species among men and women. The rational choice theory, use value approach and concept of utility constituted a theoretical grounding of the research process. The study essentially used qualitative research methods with some quantitative data. A mix of interviews and focus group discussions were employed for this study. Interviews were conducted with community leaders, traditional healers, NGOs in the similar field and Government stakeholders eliciting their views on use values of medicinal plants and sustainable interventions that can be enacted in conserving these species. The findings of the study were shown through using tables, charts and the quantitative data was presented using STATA. The calculated total usevalues of the 11 medicinal plants showed that Kirkia ancuminata Oliv, Dicoma anomala Sond, Syzgium guineense DC, Zingiber offinale, Acacia Karoo Hayne were found to have “high total use-values” and Lannea edulis Engl, Aloe, Lippia javanica Spreng, Virtex payos merril, parinari curatelli and Coleochloa setiflora have “low total use-values”

Please read the abstract (Summary) in the section, 00front of this document / Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Pharmacology / DPhil / Unrestricted

Malaria continues to be a major cause of mortality and morbidity especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. The emergence and spread of drug resistant parasites has highlighted the need for new chemically diverse, effective drugs. Historically, one of the major sources of antimalarial agents and novel template compounds has been higher order plants. The widespread use of medicinal plants for the treatment of malaria in South Africa represents a diverse resource of potential antimalarial drugs. Two South African plants, Vernonia staehelinoides and Oncosiphon piluliferum, were identified as potential sources of new antimalarial drugs through a national multidisciplinary-consortium project aimed at scientifically validating South African medicinal plants for the treatment of malaria. The in vitro antiplasmodial activity of extracts of these plants warranted further investigation to identify the biologically active components. Bio-assay guided fractionation based on in vitro antiplasmodial activity against the D10 P. falciparum strain was used to identify the compounds responsible for the observed activity. Compounds were purified using silica gel column chromatography. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated using spectroscopic techniques. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the organic extracts of V. staehelinoides leaves identified a pair of structurally-related hirsutinolides with significant in vitro antiplasmodial activity. The compounds were found to be cytotoxic at similar concentrations but proved to be interesting scaffolds for potential structure-activity relationship studies. Three germacranolides and two eudesmanolides were identified through bioassay-guided fractionation of the organic O. piluliferum extract. Selected derivatizations were conducted in order to fully characterize the compounds. The absolute configuration of the major active germacranolide was determined using Mosher's method. The effect of the reduction of the <font face="symbol"> a</font>-methylene group of the major active germacranolide on antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity was also investigated. The 5 compounds and the reduction product were found to possess varying degrees of in vitro antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity. None was sufficiently active or selective to be a viable drug candidate but the potential for further structure-activity relationship studies exists. / Dissertation (MSc (Chemistry))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Chemistry / unrestricted

The process of investigating plants to identify chemical substances is of great interest to natural product scientists because there is a need to discover new drugs for treating diseases. In our study, plant extracts were prepared from the bulbs of Crinum macowanii, Boophane disticha as well as Eucomis autumnalis and further experiments were made on the extracts. High performance liquid chromatography with other instruments (ultra-violet detector, mass spectrometer) coupled to it, were used in the search for the active ingredients in the extracts prepared. Old methods of separation and identification such as flash column chromatography and thin layer chromatography also played an important role in the investigation of these extracts. Other techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), helped in the structural elucidation once the compounds had been purified. The use of analytical techniques (HPLC-MS, NMR) was found to be important in the process of investigating the extracts and the presence of various active ingredients was confirmed. The methods used traditionally for extract preparation (boiling plants in water for certain amount of time) were investigated and the important relationship between the boiling time and concentration of the active components was established. It was found that the increase in boiling time of the plants during preparation decreases the concentrations of the active components. The experiments conducted provide some scientific evidence which motivates that the traditional preparations of the plants are related to the dosage. / Dissertation (MSc (Chemistry))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Chemistry / unrestricted

Please read the abstract in the 00front of this document / Dissertation (MSc (Pharmacology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Pharmacology / unrestricted

This research examines an edible and medicinal plant species, Balsamorhiza sagittata Pursh (Nutt) (balsamroot, or spring sunflower). Included are: 1) a study of literature concerning previous uses and potential agronomic applications of B. sagittata; 2) an ecological study to assess the general habitat requirements of B. sagittata at three populations in the Northwestern Plateau of British Columbia; and 3) an agronomic study of B. sagittata, the main purpose of which is to explore the development of the species in a cropping system or as a horticulture plant. Ethnobotanical literature confirms that B. sagittata has a long tradition as a highly significant food and medicinal resource on the Northern plateau. A review of botanical and range literature indicates that the species is an ecologically important forb in sagebrush ecosystems. Ecological data collectci:l was significantly different between the field sites. The only variable that was statistically similar at the Pavilion Mountain, Hat Creek Valley and Botanie Valley research locations was the number of blooms on the B. sagittata plants. Furthermore the data did not indicate significant correlations to explain variation in the number of B. sagittata plants between sample plots. Preliminary agronomic experiments indicate that B. sagittata can be propagated by seed, both in a greenhouse and at a field location. Treating seeds with ethylene before stratification significantly increased seed germination. / Graduate

In Africa, the importance of medicinal plants in folklore medicine and their contribution to primary healthcare is well recognized. Across the continent, local herbal mixtures still provide the only therapeutic option for about 80% of the population. The vast floral diversity and the intrinsic ethnobotanical knowledge has been the backbone of localized traditional herbal medical practices. In Africa, an estimated 5400 of the 60000 described plant taxa possess over 16300 therapeutic uses. Similarly, with a therapeutic flora comprising of approximately 650 species, herbal medical practitioners in South Africa, make use of a plethora of plants to treat different human diseases and infections. Over the years, studies have identified numerous plant species with potential against chronic metabolic diseases including type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Globally, the incidence and prevalence of T2DM have reached epidemic proportions affecting people of all ages, nationalities and ethnicity. Considered the fourth leading cause of deaths by disease, T2DM is a global health crisis with an estimated diagnosis and mortality frequency of 1 every 5 seconds and 1 every 7 seconds respectively. Though the exact pathophysiology of T2DM is not entirely understood, initial peripheral insulin resistance in adipose tissue, liver, and skeletal muscle with subsequent pancreatic β-cell dysfunction resulting from an attempt to compensate for insulin resistance is a common feature of the disease. The current approach to treating T2DM is the use of oral antidiabetic agents (OAAs), insulin, and incretin-based drugs in an attempt to achieve glycaemic control and maintain glucose homeostasis. However, conventional anti-T2DM drugs have been shown to have limited efficacies and serious adverse effects. Hence, the need for newer, more efficacious and safer anti-T2DM agents. Sutherlandia frutescens subsp. microphylla is a flowering shrub of the pea family (Fabaceae/Leguminaceae) found mainly in the Western Cape and Karoo regions of Southern Africa. Concoctions of various parts of the plant are used in the management of different ailments including T2DM. However, despite extensive biological and pharmacological studies, few analyses exist of the chemical constituents of S. frutescens and no Triple Time of Flight Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometry (Triple TOF LC/MS/MS) analysis has been performed. The initial aim of this study was to investigate the phytochemical profile of hot aqueous, cold aqueous, 80% ethanolic, 100% ethanolic, 80% methanolic and 100% methanolic extracts of a single source S. frutescens plant material using colorimetric and spectrophotometric analysis. The hot aqueous extractant was found to be the best extractant for S. frutescens, yielding 1.99 g of crude extract from 16 g fresh powdered plant material. This data suggests that application of heat and water as the extractant (hot aqueous) could play a vital role in extraction of bioactive compounds from S. frutescens and also justifies the traditional use of a tea infusion of S. frutescens. Colorimetric analysis revealed the presence of flavonoids, flavonols, tannins, and phenols in all extracts with varying intensity. The organic extracts 100% methanol, 80% and 100% ethanol exhibited high color intensity (+++) for flavonoids and flavonols respectively, while all the extracts exhibited a moderate color intensity (++) for tannins and phenols. Spectrophotometric analysis of S. frutescens extracts revealed that all the organic extracts contained a significantly higher concentration (in mg/g of extract) of flavonols and tannins when compared to the aqueous extracts. All extracts contained approximately equal levels of phenols. These data confirm the presence of all four groups of bioactive phytocompounds in the S. frutescens extracts used in this study, and also confirm that different solvent extractants possess the capability to differentially extract specific groups of phytocompounds. in individual extracts. Further comparison of these compounds with online databases of anti-diabetic phytocompounds led to the preliminary identification of 10 possible anti-diabetic compounds; α-Pinene, Limonene, Sabinene, Carvone, Myricetin, Rutin, Stigmasterol, Emodin, Sarpagine and Hypoglycin B in crude and solid phase extraction (SPE) fractions of S. frutesecens. Furthermore, using two hepatic cell lines (Chang and HepG2) as an in-vtro model system, the anti-T2DM properties of crude aqueous and organic extracts of S. frutescents was investigated and compared. Both aqueous and organic extracts of S. frutescens were found to decrease gluconeogenesis, increase glucose uptake and decrease lipid accumulation (Triacylglycerol, Diacylglycerol, and Monoacylglycerol) in Chang and HepG2 hepatic cell cultures made insulin resistant (IR) following exposure to high concentration of insulin and fructose. Using real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), the aqueous and organic extracts of S. frutescens were confirmed to regulate the expression of Vesicle-associated membrane protein 3 (VAMP3), Mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (MAPK8), and Insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) in insulin resistant hepatic cells. IR-mediated downregulation of VAMP3, MAPK8, and IRS1 mRNA in IR HepG2 hepatic cell cultures was reversed in the presence of aqueous and organic extracts of S. frutescens. The hot aqueous extract displayed the highest activity in all the assays, while all the organic extracts displayed similar potency. In conclusion, this study reports that aqueous and organic extracts of S. frutescens possess numerous anti-diabetic compounds that can be further investigated for the development of new, more efficacious and less toxic anti-diabetic agents. The presence of multiple compounds in a single extract does suggest a synergistic or combinatorial therapeutic effect. These findings support the burgeoning body of in-vivo and in-vitro literature evidence on the anti-diabetic properties of S. frutescens and its use in folklore medicine.

Type II diabetes is becoming a growing problem in developed countries worldwide. The median age for diagnosis was around sixty, but recent surveys have shown that the entire age distribution curve shifting left. The incidence of type II diabetes is thought to be parallel with the growing rate of obesity associated with an unhealthy western diet. Type II diabetes is an expensive disease to manage, it is for this reason that cheaper medication needs to be investigated in the form of traditional plants, such as Sutherlandia frutescens. Prescription medication, such as tricyclic antidepressants, may also increase body weight thereby playing a role in obesity. The cause of weight gain in such cases may go unrecognized or lead to cessation of the medication with or without the practitioner’s knowledge or approval. It is therefore necessary to investigate the causative agents responsible for the excessive weight gain. Drinking water containing extracts of S. frutescens or metformin was administered to two groups of eleven insulin resistant male Wistar rats. The insulin resistant control group received water without any medication. Rats were sacrificed after 8 weeks allowing for fasting blood glucose, insulin and tissue glycogen content determination. Glucose uptake was also determined using [3H] deoxyglucose. The effect of the medication and the diet on muscle post receptor insulin signaling proteins was determined through Western blots. Liver proteomics was also performed using 2-D electrophoresis. In a separate experiment 26 male Wistar rats were exposed to strepotozotocin toxin, 7 of these rats received intravenous insulin treatment, 7 rats received S. frutescens extract and 7 rats received a combination of both medications, the remaining 5 received no treatment and served as the control. Rats were sacrificed after 6 days allowing for fasting blood glucose, insulin and tissue glycogen content determination. Two groups of 14 male Wistar rats received amitriptyline or trimipramine (common tricyclic antidepressants) in their drinking water, the control group (30 rats) received water without any medication. The rats’ weight and food consumption was monitored throughout the trial and their oxygen consumption was also determined. Rats were sacrificed after 6 weeks or 14 weeks of medicinal compliance allowing for fasting blood glucose, insulin and tissue glycogen content determination. Glucose uptake was also determined using [3H] deoxyglucose. S. frutescens treatment normalized circulating serum insulin levels and significantly increased the rate of glucose clearance. Certain post receptor insulin signaling proteins were also significantly increased relative to the insulin resistant control group. 2-D electrophoresis identified the normalization of protein levels associated with the urea cycle. S. frutescens was also able to, independently; maintain normoglycaemic levels in the strepotozotocin treated group. The tricyclic antidepressants significantly increased blood glucose levels while significantly reducing tissue glycogen levels for both sacrifice periods. Serum insulin remained unchanged while a significant increase in insulin degradation and insulin degrading enzyme levels were found for both antidepressants. S. frutescens shows promise as a low cost antidiabetic medication for future use. Although the antidepressants did not promote weight gain, the increase in blood glucose levels may be cause for concern in patients with a pre-disposition toward developing diabetes.

It is estimated by the World Health Organization (WHO) that by 2040 neurodegenerative disorders will collectively surpass cancer as the primary cause of death in industrialised countries (WHO,2006). Natural flora represents one of the most important therapeutic sources in modern drug discovery, however only a limited number of plant species have been screened for their neuroprotective value. The neuroprotective potential of eleven Algerian and two South African medicinal plant extracts were assessed in this study, aiming to identify promising candidates for future research. Neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease are characterised by distinct biochemical features, including protein misfolding/-aggregation, excessive oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death. As such, medicinal plant extracts were screened for biological properties directly relevant to neurodegeneration. The capacity to induce autophagy was also investigated as mounting evidence suggests that activation of this pathway may reduce abnormal protein aggregation and promote neuronal survival.