The purpose of this study was to aggregate the findings of three distinct areas of research into one model of team effectiveness. Specifically, it was hypothesized that, in accordance with prior research findings, aspects of personality related to social intelligence would predict informal leadership emergence. Furthermore, it was predicted that multiple leaders within a team would positively influence that team's subsequent level of performance, through the mediating influence of team mental model similarity and team mental model accuracy. Participants included 40 computer science and engineering teams, who completed their surveys at time one, whereas performance criterion measures were collected at time two. Contrary to prediction, results indicated that social intelligence was not a significant predictor of leadership emergence, and leadership dispersion did not directly impact team performance. However, leadership dispersion positively impacted team mental model accuracy, and team mental model accuracy and similarity positively affected subsequent team performance, as hypothesized. Therefore, the current study provides partial support for a model of team performance that takes into account multiple leadership within teams and its positive influence on the dissemination and development of important, task-related knowledge structures among team members. / Master of Science

The practice of reflection on experience has been called a best practice for learning in organizations. Researchers have extensively studied the impacts of reflection on experience on improving productivity in areas of health and education. The results of these studies have shown that reflection on experience by individuals is indeed effective in enhancing practitioners' performance in the field. There has not, however, been much research on the process of reflection on experience by employees of organizations. This dissertation focused on enhancing the understanding of the process, structure, and underlying mechanisms of reflection on experience by employees in the high tech organizational environments. This dissertation is a multi-phase study. First, the systematic process of employee reflective practices in organizations was investigated by reviewing the literature, and a theoretical six-factor structure was proposed. Second, a literature-based assessment instrument was designed and administered, leading to the collection of data from 354 employees of different U.S.-based technology organizations. Third, an exploratory factor analysis extracted the empirical factor structure of reflective practices and contrasted it to the proposed theoretical construct. The collected data entailed demographic data, employee satisfaction, and teamwork perceptions as independent variables, where the reflective practices were the dependent variables. Regression analysis of the data highlighted associations between reflective practices and employee satisfaction, teamwork, as well as some of the collected demographic data. Finally, in the fourth phase, a system dynamics approach was applied to develop the first literature-based causal loop diagram of systematic reflective practices in organizations that shed light on reasons behind the failure of organizations to reflect. This study produced the first empirical factor structure of reflective practices, and an assessment instrument to explore the reflective practices of high-tech organizations. In addition, this study examined associations between reflective practices and employee and organizational characteristics. Finally, it provides a causal loop diagram that maps the mechanisms that reinforce or impede the practice of reflection on experience in organizations. This diagram can be used as a roadmap and a guide to improve and increase practitioners' reflective practices. / Doctor of Philosophy / The practice of mental reconstruction of experience is called "reflection on experience," which has been called a best practice for learning in organizations. Researchers have extensively studied the impacts of reflection on experience on improving productivity in areas of health and education. The results of these studies have shown that reflection on experience by individuals is indeed effective in enhancing practitioners' performance in the field. There has not, however, been much research on the process of reflection on experience by employees of organizations. This dissertation will focus on enhancing the understanding of the process, structure, and underlying mechanisms of reflection on experience by employees in high tech organizational environments in a multi-phase study. First, the systematic process of employee reflective practices in organizations is investigated, and a theoretical six-factor structure is proposed. Next, the design and administration of a literature-based survey led to the collection of data from 354 employees of different U.S.-based technology organizations. Through analysis of the data, an empirical factor structure of reflective practices was extracted and was compared to the proposed theoretical construct. The analysis showed that reflective practices are associated with employee teamwork and employee satisfaction, where if the employee perceptions of teamwork or employee satisfaction increases, the employee's practice of reflection will increase as well. On the other hand, the analysis showed that the organizational unit's size and the employee's level of education is negatively associated with reflection. The larger the organization or, the higher the level of education of the employees, the less the overall level of reflection of the employees will be. Finally, a first causal loop diagram that maps the mechanisms that reinforce or impede the practice of reflection on experience in organizations was developed to be used as a roadmap and a guide to enhance organizations' learning and performance outcomes by systematically improving and increasing practitioners' reflective practices.

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Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Physics / Dean A. Zollman / In this study we explored students' transfer of learning in the X-ray medical imaging context, including the X-ray-based computer-assisted tomography (or CAT). For this purpose we have conducted a series of clinical and teaching interviews. The investigation was a part of a bigger research effort to design teaching-learning materials for pre-medical students who are completing their algebra-based physics course. Our students brought to the discussion pieces of knowledge transferred from very different sources such as their own X-ray experiences, previous learning and the mass media. This transfer seems to result in more or less firm mental models, although often not internally consistent or coherent. Based on our research on pre-med students' models of X-rays we designed a hands-on lab using semi-transparent Lego bricks to model CAT scans. Without "surgery" (i.e. without intrusion into the Lego "body") students determined the shape of an object, which was built out of opaque and translucent Lego bricks and hidden from view. A source of light and a detector were provided upon request. Using a learning cycle format, we introduced CAT scans after students successfully have completed this task. By comparing students' ideas before and after teaching interview with the groups of 2 or 3 participants, we have investigated transfer of learning from basic physics and everyday experience to a complex medical technology and how their peer interactions trigger and facilitate this process. During the last phase of our research we also introduced a CAT-scan simulation problem into our teaching interview routine and compared students' perception of this simulation and their perception of the hands-on activity.

This study is a systematic literature review on the role of models and representations in the teaching, learning and understanding of the atom and atomic concepts. The aim of the study is to investigate the role of different visual representations, what models and representations are used in the science classroom, how learners interpret different external representations of the atom, what mental models students construct, and how the representations can be used and designed for meaningful learning and teaching of the atom and atomic concepts.   In this systematic literature review, a combination of different databases was used to search for literature, namely ERIC, Scopus and Google Scholar. Some limiters were used to narrow down the returned results: the articles should be peer-reviewed and be published 1990-01-01 or later. Ten of the returned articles were included for individual analysis in the study.   The results of the study show that students often find concepts of atomic structure difficult and confusing. The abstract microscopic world of atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye, and models are therefore necessary and crucial educational tools for teaching atomic concepts in school. However, when using a model, it is important for the teacher to explain the rules of the model, and the advantages and limitations of the representation must be discussed. Analysis of the included articles revealed three types of representations used to represent atomic phenomena: two-dimensional static diagrams or pictures (e.g. a picture of the atom), three-dimensional videos or simulations (e.g. virtual reality simulations), and visual analogies (e.g. the Bohr planetary model of the atom). The use of simulations and interactive learning environments seem to have a positive effect on students’ learning. One of the studies, described in the articles included for analysis, showed that students appreciated the use of virtual reality simulations, since it made abstract concepts easier to understand when they could be visualized.

This thesis reports a research project that aims to improve the teaching and learning of introductory programming from a pedagogical and psychological viewpoint. Towards this aim, seven principles for designing educational programming tools for novices were identified by reviewing literature regarding novices’ difficulties and using a theoretical framework defined by the psychological theories of Constructivism and Cognitive Load Theory. This set of design principles was not only theoretically identified, but its pedagogical impact was also empirically tested. For this reason, Koios, a new programming tool, was designed and developed as a manifestation of the combined set of principles. Empirical studies were conducted by a way of a quasi-experimental design in two different Greek secondary-education institutions. The independent variable was compliance with the set of the seven principles. Students’ level of programming skills (procedural knowledge) was the dependent variable, while the quality of their mental models in the domain of introductory programming (declarative knowledge) was the potential mediator. The effect of compliance with the set of principles on students’ programming skills and mental-model quality was explored via Koios’ evaluation. Declarative- and procedural-knowledge measurements, as well as a practical test, were used to collect data, which were analysed using ANOVA and hierarchical multiple regression. The major conclusions drawn from this study are:(a) compliance with the set of design principles does not affect the development of novices’ procedural and declarative programming knowledge, (b) a programming tool that highly complies with this set facilitates novices in the application of their procedural programming knowledge during program creation and (c) programming tools, declarative and procedural knowledge are independent components in learning to program. However, it was also concluded that the two knowledge types and a programming tool that highly complies with the set contribute significantly to novices’ programming performance. This study contributes to knowledge by theoretically identifying and empirically testing a set of design principles for educational programming software, and by producing and scientifically evaluating a programming tool as an embodiment of this set. Through this evaluation, the suggestion of Koios as a practically useful programming tool for novices seems to be well supported.

The paper describes our usage of and experience with the method of participatory systems mapping. The method, developed for the purpose of facilitating knowledge brokerage, builds on participatory modelling approaches and applications and was used in several events involving both researchers and policy makers. The paper presents and discusses examples of how different types of participatory interaction with causal loop diagrams ("system maps") produced different insights on issues related to sustainable consumption and enabled participatory reflection and sharing of knowledge. Together, these insights support a systemic understanding of the issues and thus the method provides instruments for coping with complexity when formulating policies for sustainable consumption. Furthermore the paper discusses the ability of the method - and its limits - to connect mental models of participants through structured discussion and thus bridge boundaries between different communities.

A Biologia Molecular e a Biotecnologia e seus conceitos subjacentes estão inseridos no currículo escolar da educação básica e têm estado presentes na vida cotidiana dos estudantes, envolvendo a análise e tomada de decisão sobre aspectos éticos relacionados à produção e aplicação do conhecimento científico e tecnológico. As explicações de alguns fenômenos e processos relacionados a estes temas estão quase sempre no nível molecular e atômico, que é descrito e explicado com modelos conceituais e físicos, ou até mesmo imagens. À luz da Teoria dos Modelos Mentais de Johnson-Laird, as pessoas raciocinam através de modelos mentais, podendo utilizar outras formas de representações mentais como proposições e imagens. Nesse contexto propôs-se diagnosticar entre treze alunos dos cursos de Licenciatura em Ciências Exatas (LCE) e Bacharelado em Ciências Físicas e Biomoleculares (CFBio), ambos cursos da Universidade de São Paulo, quais as representações mentais que esses alunos possuíam sobre o tema proteínas, bem como a contribuição de uma sequência didática utilizando modelos táteis para o ensino e aprendizagem da estrutura e função de proteínas. Para tal, realizamos (a) uma entrevista com os alunos dos cursos mencionados (pré-teste), (b) dois cursos com duração de três dias para cada turma (LCE e CFBio) e (c) uma entrevista com os mesmos alunos transcorrida uma semana após a realização de cada curso (pós-teste). Os dados obtidos foram de três tipos: registros escritos (desenhos e/ ou esquemas); um ou mais modelos táteis montados com materiais de baixo custo; áudio e imagens oriundos das filmagens das entrevistas. Os registros escritos e os modelos táteis de cada aluno foram fotografados e os áudios das entrevistas transcritos, gerando um documento individual que possibilitou uma análise de conteúdo, permitindo a divisão da amostra em duas categorias: alunos modelizadores e não modelizadores, cada uma com subcategorias próprias. A detecção das representações mentais que os alunos possuíam antes e após o curso sinalizou que a contribuição da sequência didática aplicada no curso para o ensino/aprendizagem do tema proteínas foi positiva, promovendo o aumento do número de alunos modelizadores e possibilitando aos mesmos o aumento do nível de complexidade e sofisticação em suas representações externas (modelos táteis e desenhos) e a evolução e esclarecimento de conceitos antes não compreendidos. / The Molecular Biology and Biotechnology and its underlying concepts are embedded in the curriculum of basic education and have been present in the daily life of students, involving the analysis and decision making about ethical issues related to the production and application of scientific and technological knowledge. The explanations of some phenomena and processes related to these themes are almost always in atomic and molecular level, which is described and explained with physical and conceptual models, or even images. In light of the mental models theory of Johnson-Laird, people reason through mental models and may use other forms of mental representations as propositions and images. In this context we proposed diagnose mental representations that students in higher education had on the subject proteins, as well as the contribution of a didactic sequence using tactile models for teaching and learning the structure and function of proteins. Thirteen students of two undergraduation courses Teacher education course in Exact Sciences (LCE) and Bachelor in Biomolecular and Physical Sciences (CFBio) - participated of this research. The tools used for data collection were: (a) an interview with the students of the courses mentioned (pre-test), (b) two courses lasting three days for each group (CFBio and LCE) and (c) an interview with the same students made one week after completion of each course (post-test). The data were of three kinds: written records (drawings and/or diagrams), one or more tactile models assembled with low cost materials, audio and pictures from the filming of the interviews. Written records and tactile models of each student were photographed and audio interviews transcribed, generating an individual document that provided a content analysis, allowing the classification of students in two categories: modellers and non-modellers, each one with its own subcategories. The detection of mental representations that students had before and after the course indicated that the contribution of the didactic sequence for the teaching/learning of the subject proteins was positive, increasing the number of students modellers and enables them (a) increase the level of complexity and sophistication in their external representations (drawings and tactile models) and (b) the development and clarification of concepts not previously understood.

At the same time that additional coordination and cooperation between involved stakeholder groups is required more than ever to respond to changing environmental and socio-economic conditions, there has been an increasing trend of polarization across several important social divides (scientists/local actors, urban/rural, and political partisanship). Boundary organizations and boundary chains have been promoted as ways to help mitigate the problematic effects these divisions have on the successful communication of climate adaptation information in the water management sector. In this dissertation, I present three studies that were conducted in two regions to further explore stakeholder groups and the boundary chains that connect them. Both areas (Guanacaste, Costa Rica and Montana, USA) are historically agricultural regions experiencing ongoing environmental and socio-economic shifts. A mental models approach involving the use of interviews and surveys was used in each study area. The first two studies were conducted in Guanacaste and focused on comparing stakeholder group perceptions of their water system and hydro-climate information and on the differences in trust in forecast sources and its impact on forecast use. The results of these studies suggest that there is a distinction between the perceptions of larger stakeholder groups (e.g. government agencies or large farmers) and smaller groups (e.g. local water committees), and that this division suggests a need for boundary-type translation work. The third study was conducted in Montana with a focus on what communication strategies are used by, and what prompts engagement with, a boundary chain connecting rural agriculturalists to urban scientists. The results show that members of the network generally agree that for successful communication it is important both to not engage in ways viewed as attacks on agriculture and to make attempts to understand and respect local agricultural contexts. While there is some tension in the network, overall “buy-in” to the goal of bridging divides appears to be a common reason for engagement. In addition, organizations engage with the boundary chain for both the opportunity to connect to others and because of the need for translation between the concerns and logistics of different groups.

In this study, I investigated the precursors and the outcomes of team resilience. In contrast to many resilience studies, which focus on low-probability, high-impact challenges, I investigated resilience in the face of high-frequency, low-impact challenges that teams can face in their operational environments. I conducted an extensive literature analysis of the field of resilience and on the basis of this constructed a model of team resilience by integrating insights from high reliability organizing, positive organizational scholarship, sensemaking and disaster resilience studies. I then tested and improved this model through an exploratory study of team behaviour in two 'Escape Game' settings in which teams of 5 people worked through a series of puzzles under time-constrained and somewhat stressful conditions. Following the exploratory study, I developed the resilience model into an operationalizable format and tested it using seven runs of a simulation study involving 547 individuals in 68 teams. In the simulation, teams had to work both quickly and accurately whilst adapting to the changing conditions of a turbulent, competitive environment. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected on various team attributes, team resilience and team performance. I have used quantitative data as the main source of analysis and qualitative data as a supporting tool. Self-completion questionnaires, objective performance indicators, direct observation and post-simulation team and individual reflections were among the data collection tools that were used to obtain data. Team resilience shows highly significant associations with a range of objective measures of team performance. In turn, resilience is supported by several team attributes, including collective mental models, effective channels of communication and systems of information gathering and team cohesion. When teams faced challenges outside of their existing action repertoires their ability to improvise also contributed to resilience. Finally, when teams overcame (novel) challenges, this fed back into their accumulated knowledge through collective learning, enriching action repertoires. Together, these features bestow teams with resilience, which, in turn, enables them to overcome disturbances that might otherwise impede operational performance. In its final form, my resilience model serves as an explanation of the mechanisms of resilience and identifies its antecedents and outcomes. It can inform teams operating in uncertain, ambiguous and volatile work conditions about the capacities and capabilities they need in order to create and sustain resilience in daily operations.