The research reported in this thesis comprised a cross-age inquiry of learners' mental models for chemical bonding. Learners were chosen purposefully from three academic levels-senior secondary school (Year-13, age range 17-18 years old), undergraduate (age range 19-21 years), and postgraduate (comprising MSc and PhD; age range 22- 27 years). The principal research goal was to establish learners' preferred mental models for the concept of chemical bonding. Other research goals were to establish if and how learners made use of analogy to understand chemical bonding and to establish the prevalence of learners' alternative conceptions for chemical bonding. The research inquiry was conducted from within a constructivist paradigm; specifically the researcher ascribed to a social and contextual constructivist belief system.Based on a review of the science education literature a decision was made to classify mental models into four classes according to the typology of Norman (1983), namely, the target system, a conceptual model, the users' or learners' mental model and the scientists' conceptualisation. A conceptual theme for the inquiry was developed based on this typology resulting in the identification of target systems-metallic, ionic and covalent bonding. Subsequently, target models for each of the three target systems were identified, namely, the sea of electrons model and the band theory for metallic bonding; the electrostatic model, and the theoretical electrostatic model for ionic bonding; and the octet rule, the valence bond approach, the molecular orbital theory and the ligand field theory for covalent bonding. A conceptual model, consisting of a summary of the salient points of the target models, was developed by the researcher. Once validated by four of the instructors involved in the inquiry, this formed the scientists' conceptualisation for the target ++ / models.Learners' mental models were elicited by the use of a three phase semi-structured interview protocol for each of the three target systems based on the translation interface developed by Johnson and Gott (1996). The protocol consisted of showing participants samples of common substances and asking them to describe the bonding in these materials. In addition, participants were shown Interviews About Events (IAE), focus cards which depicted events involving chemical bonding or contained depicted models of bonding for the three target systems. Transcriptions of audio-tapes combined with diagrams produced by the participants formed the data corpus for the inquiry. Learners' mental models were compiled into inventories for each of the target systems. Examination of inventories enabled identification of commonality of views which were validated by four instructors-two instructors from the teaching institutions involved in the inquiry, and two instructors independent of the inquiry.The research reported in this thesis revealed that learners across all three academic levels preferred simple or realist mental models for chemical bonding, such as the sea of electrons model and the octet rule. Learners frequently used concepts from other more sophisticated models to aid their explanations when their preferred mental models were found to be inadequate. Senior level learners were more critical of mental models, particularly depicted models provided on IAE focus cards. Furthermore, senior level learners were able to describe their mental models in greater detail than their younger counterparts. However, the inquiry found considerable commonality across all three levels of learner, suggesting mental models are relatively stable.Learners' use of analogy was classified according to Dagher's (1995a) typology, namely, simple, narrative, peripheral and compound. Learners' use of ++ / analogy for the understanding of chemical bonding was found to be idiosyncratic. When they struggled to explain aspects of their mental models for chemical bonding, learners made extensive use of simple analogy, that typically involved the mapping of a single attribute between the target and source domains. There did not appear to be any correlation between academic ability or academic level and use of analogy. However, learners made greater use of compound analogy for the target systems of metallic and ionic bonding, mostly as a result of the use of analogical models during instruction.This inquiry revealed prevalent alternative conceptions for chemical bonding across all three academic levels of learner. This is a somewhat surprising result considering that the mental models preferred by learners were typically simple, realist models they had encountered during instruction. Learners' alternative conceptions often concerned simple conceptions such as ionic size, the presence of charged species in non- polar molecular compounds, and misunderstandings about the strength of bonding in metals and ionic substances. The inquiry also revealed widespread confusion about intermolecular and intramolecular bonding, and the nature of lattices structures for ionic and metallic substances.The inquiry resulted in a number of recommendations. It is proposed that it may be more beneficial to teach less content at the introductory level, that is, delivering a curriculum that is more appropriate for non-specialist chemistry majors. Hence, one recommendation is for instructors to examine the intended curriculum carefully and be more critical regarding the value of inclusion of some course content. A second recommendation is that sophisticated models of chemical bonding are better taught only at advanced stages of the degree program, and that teaching from a contructivist view of ++ / learning may be beneficial. The third recommendation relates to the fact that learners spontaneously generated analogies to aid their explanations and conceptual understanding, consequently, learners may benefit from greater use of analogy during instruction.

The use of systems that span many knowledge domains is becoming more common as technology advances, requiring expert-performance in a domain from users who are usually not experts in that domain. This study examined a means of communicating expertise (in system operation and fault diagnosis) to non-experts and furthering the understanding of expert mental models. It has been suggested that conceptions of abstract models of system-functions distinguish expert performance from non-expert performance (Hanisch, Kramer, and Hulin, 1991). This study examined the effects on performance of augmenting a simple control panel device with a model of the functions of the device, interacting with the model, and augmenting the device with graphically superimposed procedural indicators (directions). The five augmented display conditions studied were: Device Only, Device + Model, Device + Procedural Indicators, Interactive Model, and Interactive Model + Procedural Indicators. The device and displays were presented on a PC workstation. Performance measures (speed and accuracy) and subjective measures (questionnaires, NASA TLX, and structured interviews) were collected. It was expected that participants who interact with the device + procedural indicators would exhibit the shortest performance time and least errors; however, those who interacted with the simplest display (device only) were fastest and exhibited the least errors. Results of this study are discussed in terms of building a mental model and identifying situations that require a mental model. / Ph. D.

Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, School of Electrical & Infomation Engineering, MSC Dissertation / The South African electrical utility,ESKOM, is one of the largest in the world with 40 GW capacity, worth R 965 billion, and an annual income of R 33 billion. The people responsible for the voltage control of the ESKOM transmission grid are highly skilled voltage controllers. An investigation was conducted to identify what constitutes their expertise. This is a ultidisciplinary research project that incorporates the fields of Power System Engineering, Industrial and Cognitive Psychology and Neuro-Linguistic Programming. Observations of the voltage controllers at work were carried out followed by in-depth interviews in order to identify, their Mental Control Strategies, Power System Visualization techniques, and Mental Models. Expert and novice voltage controllers were included in the research as well as one in-house Man Machine Interface (MMI) developer. Some of the main findings are: ·The sophisticated mental strategies that allow controllers to simplify the overabundance of data presented to them. ·The subconsciously created vivid mental imagery that they use to make fast intuitive decisions. Having obtained the above information, MMI design and human controller training can be optimised.

This study will provide an overview of mental models in teams and the significance of this particular concept for design teams. Researchers have applied the concept of mental models to understand how people perform tasks on the basis of their knowledge, assumptions, predictions and expectation. An overview is also provided on the relation between performance and mental models and their effect on stakeholders. The implications for design field are discussed. Through the study of two organizations in the same industry, the teams are studied in detail for each of these companies and hence leading to the study of mental models of stakeholders. Through the use of interviews, a detailed analysis is done on the team mental models. The mental models of stack holders and their influence on different aspects of company and team performance are discussed in detail. The methodology for the study of mental models is also proposed in the study. The findings are based on the data collected through interviews in both the organizations. The empirical study is designed in such a way that it investigates further the validity of theoretical concepts. Warid is a major telecommunication brand in Pakistan that provides services in all the regions of the country. Ufone is also a well-known telecommunication brand, known for its innovative and creative TVCs (TV commercial). Interviews with the marketing and sales officials of both these organizations provided an insight into the teams behind their advertising/marketing campaigns and the affect of stakeholders’ mental models on the performance and sales of the companies. The comparative analysis between the theoretical and empirical studies suggests that the quality of mental models is affected by diversity in the team, education and experience of the team members. This may be brought in for future research to further verify the effectiveness of mental models for design teams and eventually the whole organization. Finally the implications of our findings are discussed. / Program: Magisterutbildning i informatik

Published Article / A retired physicist attempting to master elements of music theory in a short time found the Mental Model of the keyboard layout invaluable in overcoming some of the related learning challenges and this has been followed up in collaboration with a professor of Music Education. Possible cognitive mechanisms for his response are discussed and it is concluded that his engrained learning habits, which emphasise models as found in physics, are potentially of wider applicability. A survey of the use of Mental Models among competent young musicians indicated that although various models are widely used, this is largely subconscious. The practical question of whether exposure of students to the keyboard would assist them in mastering music theory remains unresolved.

Chemical representations play a vital part in the teaching and learning of chemistry. The aim of this research was to investigate students’ understanding of chemical representations and to ascertain the influence of chemical representations on students’ developing mental models of chemical phenomena. Three primary threads flowing through the thesis are models, representations and learning. Each thread was found to play a vital part in students’ learning of chemical content, in their learning of the scientific process and in their learning about the process of learning itself. This research with students from Year 8 to first year university level comprised four studies that provide comparisons between ages, abilities, learning settings and teaching and learning approaches. Students’ modelling ability was observed to develop and improve through instruction and practice and usually coincided with an improvement in their understanding of chemical concepts. While students were observed to actively use models to make predictions and test ideas, some were not aware of the predictive nature of models when asked about it. From the research, five characteristics of scientific models have been identified: scientific models as multiple representations, scientific models as exact replicas, scientific models as explanatory tools, how scientific models are used, and the dynamic nature of scientific models. A theoretical framework relating the four types of models - teaching, scientific, mental and expressed - and a typology of models that highlights the significant attributes of models, support the research results. The data showed that students’ ability to describe the role of the scientific model in the process of science improved with their increasing age and maturity. / The relationship between the three levels of chemical representation of matter - the macroscopic level, the sub-microscopic level and the symbolic level - revealed some complexities concerning the representational and theoretical qualities and the reality of each level. The research data showed that generally most students had a good understanding of the macroscopic and symbolic levels of chemical representation of matter. However, students’ understanding of the sub-microscopic level varied, with some students being able to spontaneously envisage the sub- microscopic view while for others their understanding of the sub-microscopic level of chemical representation was lacking. To make sense of the sub-microscopic level, students’ appreciation of the accuracy and detail of any scientific model, or representation upon which their mental model is built, depended on them being able to distinguish reality from representation, distinguish reality from theory, know what a representation is, understand the role of a representation in the process of science, and understand the role of a theory in the process of science. In considering learning, the importance of an individual’s modelling ability was examined alongside the role of chemical representations and models in providing clear and concise explanations. Examining the links forged between the three levels of chemical representation of matter provided an insight into how students were learning and understanding chemical concepts. Throughout this research, aspects of students’ metacognition and intention were identified as being closely related to their development of mental models. / The research identified numerous factors that influenced learning, including internal factors such as students’ prior chemical and mathematical knowledge, their modelling ability and use of chemical representations, motivation, metacognitive ability and time management as well as external factors such as organisation, assessment, teaching resources, getting feedback and good explanations. The choice of learning strategies by students and instructors appeared to be influenced by those factors that influenced learning. Feedback to students, in the form of discussion with classmates, online quizzes and help from instructors on their understanding was observed to be significant in promoting the learning process. Many first year university non-major chemistry students had difficulties understanding chemical concepts due to a limited background knowledge in chemistry and mathematics. Accordingly, greater emphasis at the macroscopic level of representation of matter with contextual references is recommended. The research results confirmed the theoretical construct for learning chemistry - the rising iceberg - that suggests all chemistry teaching begins at the macroscopic level, with the sub-microscopic and symbolic levels being introduced as needed. More of the iceberg becomes visible as the students’ mental model and depth of understanding increases. In a variety of situations, the changing status of a concept was observed as students’ understanding in terms of the intelligibility, plausibility and fruitfulness of a concept developed. / The research data supported four aspects of learning - epistemological, ontological, social affective and metacognitive - as being significant in the students’ learning and the development of their mental models. Many university students, who are mature and are experienced learners, exhibited strong rnetacognitive awareness and an intentional approach to learning. It is proposed that the intentional and metacognitive learning approaches and strategies could be used to encourage students to be more responsible for their own learning.

Designers use various representations to externalize their ideas, physical models being an important one. Physical models are widely used by designers and their use is promoted as an effective design tool by industry and government agencies. However, very little is known about the cognitive effects of physical models in the design process; the available guidelines are conflicting. Some researchers argue for the frequent implementation of physical models, while others observe that the use of physical models fixates designers. In light of these conflicts, the research discussed in this dissertation focuses on understanding the cognitive effects of physical models and developing guidelines for aiding designers in their implementation. A combination of controlled lab studies and qualitative studies is adopted to achieve said goal. The results from the controlled studies show that physical models supplement designers’ erroneous mental models and help them to come up with more ideas satisfying the problem requirements. These studies also demonstrate that design fixation is not inherent in physical modeling, but it is caused by the Sunk Cost Effect. According to Sunk Cost Effect, as designers spend more time building physical models of their initial ideas, they tend to fixate more to the variations of those ideas. A qualitative study on industry-sponsored projects and development cases of award-winning products further supports these results in more realistic situations. Further, the studies reported in this dissertation show that physical models can be effective tools for the mitigation of fixation to undesirable design features in a flawed example; however, these results can also depend upon the experience level of a designer in solving open-ended design problems. With these insights from the series of studies, a set of guidelines and a Model Error Reeducation Method (MERM) are formulated and tested with novice designers. MERM helps designers in identifying critical loads and interface designs they miss in their original designs, before prototyping. The results from the testing of this method show that this method is very useful in avoiding said errors in physical modeling.

This paper investigates the behavior of bicycle commuters using qualitative behavior research techniques. Bicycle commuters are observed in context of their commute rides and video taped for analysis. Interviews and cognitive mapping processes are used to draw out commuters' perceptions to external activity and their behavior modifications in response. The behavior and perception data are used to illustrate mental models of bicycle commuters: how they differ among riders and how an individual rider's mental model evolves along their commute. A clear understanding of bicycle commuters' mental models and behaviors associated with them can be used to create a framework for development of a tool for self-assessment of commuting experiences.

The purpose of this research is to investigate undergraduate students&rsquo / mental models about the quantization of physical observables. The research was guided by ethnography, case study, and content analysis integrated to each other. It focused on second-year physics and physics education students, who were taking the Modern Physics course at the Department of Physics, at Middle East Technical University. Wide range of data was collected by interview, observation, test, diary, and other documents during 2008-2 academic semester. The findings obtained from the qualitative analysis of the data indicated the following conclusions: (1) Students displayed six different mental models, defined as Scientific Model, Primitive Scientific Model, Shredding Model, Alternating Model, Integrative Model, and Evolution Model, about the quantization of physical observables. (2) Students&rsquo / models were influenced by the external sources such as textbooks (explanations in textbooks, bringing textbook into the classes, and the use of one or both textbooks), instructional elements (explanations in instruction, taking notes in classes, and studying before and after the classes+taking notes in classes+attending classes regularly), topic order, and classmate / they were influenced by the internal sources such as meta-cognitive elements, motivation, belief (the nature of science and the nature of quantum physics concepts), and familiarity and background about the concepts. (3) The models displayed by students developed with the contribution of these sources in different proportions. Furthermore, although upgrading in models was observed within the cases of quantization, students&rsquo / mental models about the quantization of physical observables are context dependent, and stable during the semester.

There are two important trends in organizations today: 1) the increasing use of teams and 2) the increasing diversity in the workforce. The literature is in tune with these organizational trends, evidenced by a dramatic increase in research on team performance and the effects of diversity. However, there are still contradictory findings of the effects of team diversity on team processes and outcomes. To shed light on these inconsistencies, the cognitive construct of team mental model is introduced as a mediator of the relationship between team cognitive diversity and team performance. Team mental model is an emergent cognitive state that represents team members' organized understanding of their task environment (e.g., Klimoski&Mohammed, 1994) and has been shown to improve team performance (e.g., Edwards, Day, Arthur,&Bell, 2006; Mathieu, Heffner, Goodwin, Salas,&Cannon-Bowers, 2000). Specifically, with a sample of 94 student teams I investigated how team cognitive diversity affects team mental model similarity and accuracy, and through them, team performance. In addition, I examined team information processing mechanisms as moderators of the relationships between team cognitive diversity and team mental model similarity and accuracy. The results suggest that cognition at the team level plays an important role in the effective functioning of decision making teams. Specifically, the combination of team mental model similarity and accuracy predicts levels of team performance and information integration is an important moderator linking cognitive style diversity to task mental models, team processes, and team performance. The research model developed and tested seeks to advance understanding of the "black box" linking team diversity to team outcomes (Lawrence, 1997) and to provide guidance to managers leading cognitively diverse teams.