The use of systems that span many knowledge domains is becoming more common as technology advances, requiring expert-performance in a domain from users who are usually not experts in that domain. This study examined a means of communicating expertise (in system operation and fault diagnosis) to non-experts and furthering the understanding of expert mental models. It has been suggested that conceptions of abstract models of system-functions distinguish expert performance from non-expert performance (Hanisch, Kramer, and Hulin, 1991). This study examined the effects on performance of augmenting a simple control panel device with a model of the functions of the device, interacting with the model, and augmenting the device with graphically superimposed procedural indicators (directions). The five augmented display conditions studied were: Device Only, Device + Model, Device + Procedural Indicators, Interactive Model, and Interactive Model + Procedural Indicators. The device and displays were presented on a PC workstation. Performance measures (speed and accuracy) and subjective measures (questionnaires, NASA TLX, and structured interviews) were collected. It was expected that participants who interact with the device + procedural indicators would exhibit the shortest performance time and least errors; however, those who interacted with the simplest display (device only) were fastest and exhibited the least errors. Results of this study are discussed in terms of building a mental model and identifying situations that require a mental model. / Ph. D.

Devido ao crescente incremento de complexidade do software embarcado atual, dada a abundância de recursos disponíveis de hardware, está cada vez mais difícil manter a qualidade do software embarcado desenvolvido sem incorrer em aumentos de custo que inviabilizem o projeto. Com isto, o teste de software embarcado é atualmente uma importante área de pesquisa, onde são buscadas técnicas de teste que maximizem o número de falhas encontradas ainda em tempo de projeto e a um custo satisfatório. Muitas das soluções pesquisadas envolvem aspectos não apenas relativos ao teste propriamente dito, mas ao projeto do produto desde a sua concepção, daí a necessidade de metodologias conjuntas de desenvolvimento e teste. Neste trabalho, é apresentada uma metodologia de desenvolvimento e testes de software embarcado com o objetivo de permitir que grande parte da tarefa de desenvolvimento e teste seja executada em um ambiente de desenvolvimento de software de aplicação, sem a presença do hardware. Neste ambiente, o desenvolvimento é pensado desde o início do projeto visando à qualidade do teste, assim caracterizando esta metodologia como uma técnica DFT (do inglês design for testability). Na abordagem proposta, o hardware físico é substituído por modelos funcionais, construídos na mesma linguagem de programação do software em desenvolvimento. O uso destes modelos permite ao desenvolvedor a construção e aplicação de casos de teste capazes de exercitar o software embarcado tanto no ambiente de software de aplicação, quanto na plataforma alvo, sem alterações. Esta dissertação mostra a metodologia sendo aplicada ao software embarcado de um medidor eletrônico de energia, onde cinco modelos de dispositivos de hardware foram construídos, que permitiram a execução tanto de testes de unidade, quanto de testes de integração, em um ambiente de desenvolvimento de software de aplicação. Finalmente, uma análise de cobertura, realizada com o auxílio de uma ferramenta que, de outra forma, não seria compatível com o software da plataforma alvo, mostrou que a execução conjunta do software e dos modelos permite atingir a cobertura de quase a totalidade do software embarcado desenvolvido, onde os casos de teste foram capazes de verificar desde as camadas de software de aplicação até as camadas de software dependente do hardware. / Due to the growing increment of complexity of the current embedded software, given the abundance of hardware resources, it is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain the software quality without requiring high development and test costs that could make the project impracticable. In this context, embedded software testing is an important research area, where test techniques that maximize the number of errors detected during design time at a satisfactory cost have been investigated. Many of the proposed solutions involve aspects not related only to the testing itself, but to the product design since its conception, hence the need of methodologies for the development and test of software. In this work, we present a methodology of development and test of embedded software that allows the execution of most of the task of development and test in an application software development environment, without the physical hardware. In the application software environment, the development is thought, since the first stages, aiming the execution of the test, hence this methodology can be seen as a DFT (design for testability) technique. In the proposed approach, the physical hardware is replaced by functional models, constructed using the same programming language of the embedded software under development. The use of such models allows the developer to construct and apply test cases capable of exercising the embedded software both in the application software environment and in the target platform environment, without any change. In this work, the presented methodology is applied to the embedded software of an electronic energy meter, where five hardware device models were constructed, which enabled the execution of both unit and integration tests in the application software environment. Finally, the coverage analysis, performed with a software tool that otherwise would not be compatible with the target platform, showed that the simultaneous execution of the software and the models make it possible to achieve an almost complete coverage of the developed embedded software, where the test cases were able to verify the software from the application layers to the hardware dependent layers.

Devido ao crescente incremento de complexidade do software embarcado atual, dada a abundância de recursos disponíveis de hardware, está cada vez mais difícil manter a qualidade do software embarcado desenvolvido sem incorrer em aumentos de custo que inviabilizem o projeto. Com isto, o teste de software embarcado é atualmente uma importante área de pesquisa, onde são buscadas técnicas de teste que maximizem o número de falhas encontradas ainda em tempo de projeto e a um custo satisfatório. Muitas das soluções pesquisadas envolvem aspectos não apenas relativos ao teste propriamente dito, mas ao projeto do produto desde a sua concepção, daí a necessidade de metodologias conjuntas de desenvolvimento e teste. Neste trabalho, é apresentada uma metodologia de desenvolvimento e testes de software embarcado com o objetivo de permitir que grande parte da tarefa de desenvolvimento e teste seja executada em um ambiente de desenvolvimento de software de aplicação, sem a presença do hardware. Neste ambiente, o desenvolvimento é pensado desde o início do projeto visando à qualidade do teste, assim caracterizando esta metodologia como uma técnica DFT (do inglês design for testability). Na abordagem proposta, o hardware físico é substituído por modelos funcionais, construídos na mesma linguagem de programação do software em desenvolvimento. O uso destes modelos permite ao desenvolvedor a construção e aplicação de casos de teste capazes de exercitar o software embarcado tanto no ambiente de software de aplicação, quanto na plataforma alvo, sem alterações. Esta dissertação mostra a metodologia sendo aplicada ao software embarcado de um medidor eletrônico de energia, onde cinco modelos de dispositivos de hardware foram construídos, que permitiram a execução tanto de testes de unidade, quanto de testes de integração, em um ambiente de desenvolvimento de software de aplicação. Finalmente, uma análise de cobertura, realizada com o auxílio de uma ferramenta que, de outra forma, não seria compatível com o software da plataforma alvo, mostrou que a execução conjunta do software e dos modelos permite atingir a cobertura de quase a totalidade do software embarcado desenvolvido, onde os casos de teste foram capazes de verificar desde as camadas de software de aplicação até as camadas de software dependente do hardware. / Due to the growing increment of complexity of the current embedded software, given the abundance of hardware resources, it is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain the software quality without requiring high development and test costs that could make the project impracticable. In this context, embedded software testing is an important research area, where test techniques that maximize the number of errors detected during design time at a satisfactory cost have been investigated. Many of the proposed solutions involve aspects not related only to the testing itself, but to the product design since its conception, hence the need of methodologies for the development and test of software. In this work, we present a methodology of development and test of embedded software that allows the execution of most of the task of development and test in an application software development environment, without the physical hardware. In the application software environment, the development is thought, since the first stages, aiming the execution of the test, hence this methodology can be seen as a DFT (design for testability) technique. In the proposed approach, the physical hardware is replaced by functional models, constructed using the same programming language of the embedded software under development. The use of such models allows the developer to construct and apply test cases capable of exercising the embedded software both in the application software environment and in the target platform environment, without any change. In this work, the presented methodology is applied to the embedded software of an electronic energy meter, where five hardware device models were constructed, which enabled the execution of both unit and integration tests in the application software environment. Finally, the coverage analysis, performed with a software tool that otherwise would not be compatible with the target platform, showed that the simultaneous execution of the software and the models make it possible to achieve an almost complete coverage of the developed embedded software, where the test cases were able to verify the software from the application layers to the hardware dependent layers.

Devido ao crescente incremento de complexidade do software embarcado atual, dada a abundância de recursos disponíveis de hardware, está cada vez mais difícil manter a qualidade do software embarcado desenvolvido sem incorrer em aumentos de custo que inviabilizem o projeto. Com isto, o teste de software embarcado é atualmente uma importante área de pesquisa, onde são buscadas técnicas de teste que maximizem o número de falhas encontradas ainda em tempo de projeto e a um custo satisfatório. Muitas das soluções pesquisadas envolvem aspectos não apenas relativos ao teste propriamente dito, mas ao projeto do produto desde a sua concepção, daí a necessidade de metodologias conjuntas de desenvolvimento e teste. Neste trabalho, é apresentada uma metodologia de desenvolvimento e testes de software embarcado com o objetivo de permitir que grande parte da tarefa de desenvolvimento e teste seja executada em um ambiente de desenvolvimento de software de aplicação, sem a presença do hardware. Neste ambiente, o desenvolvimento é pensado desde o início do projeto visando à qualidade do teste, assim caracterizando esta metodologia como uma técnica DFT (do inglês design for testability). Na abordagem proposta, o hardware físico é substituído por modelos funcionais, construídos na mesma linguagem de programação do software em desenvolvimento. O uso destes modelos permite ao desenvolvedor a construção e aplicação de casos de teste capazes de exercitar o software embarcado tanto no ambiente de software de aplicação, quanto na plataforma alvo, sem alterações. Esta dissertação mostra a metodologia sendo aplicada ao software embarcado de um medidor eletrônico de energia, onde cinco modelos de dispositivos de hardware foram construídos, que permitiram a execução tanto de testes de unidade, quanto de testes de integração, em um ambiente de desenvolvimento de software de aplicação. Finalmente, uma análise de cobertura, realizada com o auxílio de uma ferramenta que, de outra forma, não seria compatível com o software da plataforma alvo, mostrou que a execução conjunta do software e dos modelos permite atingir a cobertura de quase a totalidade do software embarcado desenvolvido, onde os casos de teste foram capazes de verificar desde as camadas de software de aplicação até as camadas de software dependente do hardware. / Due to the growing increment of complexity of the current embedded software, given the abundance of hardware resources, it is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain the software quality without requiring high development and test costs that could make the project impracticable. In this context, embedded software testing is an important research area, where test techniques that maximize the number of errors detected during design time at a satisfactory cost have been investigated. Many of the proposed solutions involve aspects not related only to the testing itself, but to the product design since its conception, hence the need of methodologies for the development and test of software. In this work, we present a methodology of development and test of embedded software that allows the execution of most of the task of development and test in an application software development environment, without the physical hardware. In the application software environment, the development is thought, since the first stages, aiming the execution of the test, hence this methodology can be seen as a DFT (design for testability) technique. In the proposed approach, the physical hardware is replaced by functional models, constructed using the same programming language of the embedded software under development. The use of such models allows the developer to construct and apply test cases capable of exercising the embedded software both in the application software environment and in the target platform environment, without any change. In this work, the presented methodology is applied to the embedded software of an electronic energy meter, where five hardware device models were constructed, which enabled the execution of both unit and integration tests in the application software environment. Finally, the coverage analysis, performed with a software tool that otherwise would not be compatible with the target platform, showed that the simultaneous execution of the software and the models make it possible to achieve an almost complete coverage of the developed embedded software, where the test cases were able to verify the software from the application layers to the hardware dependent layers.

The electromagnetic machines like the dc, induction, synchronous motor/generator and the transformer have an energy flow framework that is similar. All these machines deal with electrical energy in the electrical domain that is interfaced with the magnetic domain. Except for the transformer, the other machines also have one more energy interface i.e. with the mechanical domain. In all these machines, the magnetic domain acts as the silent energy manager. The electrical and the mechanical domain energies will have to pass through the magnetic domain and appropriately get routed. In recognition of the commonality of this pattern of energy flow, this thesis proposes a generalised model of a multiphase electromagnetic device wherein the dc machine, induction machine, synchronous machine and the transformers are special cases of the proposed generalised model. This is derived using bond graphs that is based on the underlining principle of Energy Flow rooted in the concept of Conservation of Energy. A model is a set of mathematical equations representing a physical system. A model is as good as a modeller understanding of the physical system and the underlying approximation he makes while writing down the equations describing the models behaviour to the stimulus. A modelling language tool, which can cut down the approximations made by using the power of identified analogous characteristics across the physical domain, can help make a model more close to real life situation. Bond Graph is such a modelling language which is powerful enough to model the non-linear, multi-disciplinary, hybrid continuous-discrete phenomena encountered in a real life physical system. Bond graphs as a modelling tool was introduced by Professor H.Paynter at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1959. The Bond Graph methodology is based on consideration of energy flows between the ports of the components of an engineering system. Bond Graph methodology enables one to develop a graphical model that is consistent with the first principle of energy conservation without having the need to start with establishing and reformulating equations. The derivation of a mathematical model from the graphical description is automated by software tools. As a consequence, a modeller using this methodology can focus on modelling of the physical system. In the graphical representation of bond graph the vertices of a bond graph denote subsystems, system components or elements, while the edges, called power bonds, represent energy flows between them. The nodes of a bond graph have power ports where energy can enter or exit. Bond graph models are developed in a hierarchical top-down or bottom-up approach by using component models or elements from model libraries. An electromagnetic machine is a black box having an assemblage of windings in iron resulting in a combination of input/output ports on shaft and electrical terminals. Abstraction of an machine model by a modeller matching the vision of the observer above is an ideal goal. Bond graph methodology is an appropriate tool for trying to reach this goal as it is based on object oriented modelling techniques. There have been few attempts to model electric machine in bond graph earlier. A well established DC motor bond graph has been widely used in all bond graph literature. But AC rotating machine being a higher order nonlinear system poses a tougher challenge. Here too, there have been few attempts in modelling AC machines. It is observed that majority of AC machine bond graph models have been built up from their mathematical models. But as the bond graph modelling technique is based on the unifying theory of energy exchange, better insight into the system is achievable if the model is conceptualised from its physical structure. This thesis starts from the basic theory of energy port to conceptualise the generalised model from physical correspondence. In this thesis a Rotating Electrical Machine is studied as a physical system. The energy ports inside this physical system is identified. When a physical system receives the energy through its energy port in one energy cycle, it processes this energy in one of the three ways. The received energy is converted into useful work or it is dissipated or stored. The storage can further be classified into two ways, either as kinetic energy or as potential energy. For a rotating electric machine the input-output port for energy exchange are either in electrical or mechanical domain depending on the class of the machine. The magnetic domain across all class of electromagnetic device acts as the energy manager. In order to capture the features of the energy jumping across the air gap in a rotating electrical machine, wherein the magnetic fields from spatially distributed windings of the stator and rotor interplay, an Axis Rotator (AR) element -a mathematical commutator, is introduced in this thesis as a new bond graph element. In a multiphase device, the energy from the various phases and spatial axes are transferred through the axis rotator element. The Axis Rotator is a critical element which helps distinguish between the various classes of electromagnetic devices. The defining features of the Axis Rotator helps in deriving the various special electromagnetic devices (such as the dc machine, induction machine, synchronous machine and the transformer) from the generalised model. The Axis Rotator exists in the magnetic domain. It naturally inherits the characteristics of the magnetic domain. The Axis Rotator as a bond graph element is complex. In a specific case of 3φ Induction Motor an alternative bond graph model with all integral elements is developed. By one to one correspondence with the AR bond graph model, the inner component of ’AR’ can be identified. Another advantage of using this model is that saturable and non-saturable magnetic permeance can be separated out, a useful feature in the nonlinear model discussed next. One of the most distinguishing features of the magnetic domain is the existence of Magnetic Hysteresis. Magnetic Hysteresis is a well understood and studied subject. But this physical process is wilfully ignored by the modelling community at large. The main reason for this is the difficulty of modelling a nonlinear phenomena. The bond graph modelling naturally allows the inclusion of such non-idealities within its framework. This thesis proposes the generalised model along with the inclusion of magnetic non-linearities and non-idealities into the model of the system. This inherent strength of bond graph model flows from the fact that the models in bond graph are developed from the first principles of energy conversation and the mathematical equations are derived later from the evolved graph. The tools that are available for bond graph simulation are not adequate for power electronics systems. The existing tools do not address space vectors and frame transformations. As a consequence it is difficult to simulate the electromagnetic device models developed in this thesis. The need for a bond graph tool to address vectors and frame transformations, a common occurrence in electric machines dynamic model study was acutely felt. This necessitated a support for handling complex data class from the underlying mathematical engine of the software. MATLAB/Simulink is the commonly available mathematical tool which has a support for complex variables. Therefore during the course of this research work a new software tool box was developed which meets the need of electromagnetic machines in particular and other engineering domains in general. For developing the new bond graph simulation software, the language extender approach was chosen, as it combines the capabilities of existing popular mathematical engine with its tested graphical frontend and the flexibility of combining different modelling technique like bond graph, block diagram, equations etc. It also ensures portability as they are compiled by interpreted language compiler of the mathematical engine and are thus independent of the computer operating system. C-MEX S-function methodology was used to develop the software as it has access to lower level functions and methods of the underlying mathematical engine. This helps in speeding up the software execution time alongwith the flexibility in defining new complex elements like the Nonlinear Axis Rotator. In conclusion, this thesis makes the following contributions: (i) The Axis rotator concept to handle space vectors and frame transformations, (ii) generalised model of the electromagnetic device, (iii) introduction of the saturation and hysteresis non-linearity in the magnetic domain, (iv) development of the bond graph toolbox to handle vector and frame transformations.

Les études qui seront présentées dans le cadre de cette thèse portent sur le développement et l’optimisation des techniques pour la modélisation compacte des transistors bipolaires à hétérojonction (TBH). Ce type de modélisation est à la base du développement des bibliothèques de composants qu’utilisent les concepteurs lors de la phase de simulation des circuits intégrés. Le but d’une technologie BiCMOS est de pouvoir combiner deux procédés technologiques différents sur une seule et même puce. En plus de limiter le nombre de composants externes, cela permet également une meilleure gestion de la consommation dans les différents blocs digitaux, analogiques et RF. Les applications dites rapides peuvent ainsi profiter du meilleur des composants bipolaires et des transistors CMOS. Le défi est d’autant plus critique dans le cas des applications analogiques/RF puisqu’il est nécessaire de diminuer la puissance consommée tout en maintenant des fréquences de fonctionnement des transistors très élevées. Disposer de modèles compacts précis des transistors utilisés est donc primordial lors de la conception des circuits utilisés pour les applications analogiques et mixtes. Cette précision implique une étude sur un large domaine de tensions d’utilisation et de températures de fonctionnement. De plus, en allant vers des nœuds technologiques de plus en plus avancés, des nouveaux effets physiques se manifestent et doivent être pris en compte dans les équations du modèle. Les règles d’échelle des technologies plus matures doivent ainsi être réexaminées en se basant sur la physique du dispositif. Cette thèse a pour but d’évaluer la faisabilité d’une offre de modèle compact dédiée à la technologie avancée SiGe TBH de chez ST Microelectronics. Le modèle du transistor bipolaire SiGe TBH est présenté en se basant sur le modèle compact récent HICUMversion L2.3x. Grâce aux lois d’échelle introduites et basées sur le dessin même des dimensions du transistor, une simulation précise du comportement électrique et thermique a pu être démontrée.Ceci a été rendu possible grâce à l’utilisation et à l’amélioration des routines et méthodes d’extraction des paramètres du modèle. C’est particulièrement le cas pour la détermination des éléments parasites extrinsèques (résistances et capacités) ainsi que celle du transistor intrinsèque. Finalement, les différentes étapes d’extraction et les méthodes sont présentées, et ont été vérifiées par l’extraction de bibliothèques SPICE sur le TBH NPN Haute-Vitesse de la technologie BiCMOS avancée du noeud 55nm, avec des fréquences de fonctionnement atteignant 320/370GHz de fT = fmax. / The aim of BiCMOS technology is to combine two different process technologies intoa single chip, reducing the number of external components and optimizing power consumptionfor RF, analog and digital parts in one single package. Given the respectivestrengths of HBT and CMOS devices, especially high speed applications benefit fromadvanced BiCMOS processes, that integrate two different technologies.For analog mixed-signal RF and microwave circuitry, the push towards lower powerand higher speed imposes requirements and presents challenges not faced by digitalcircuit designs. Accurate compact device models, predicting device behaviour undera variety of bias as well as ambient temperatures, are crucial for the development oflarge scale circuits and create advanced designs with first-pass success.As technology advances, these models have to cover an increasing number of physicaleffects and model equations have to be continuously re-evaluated and adapted. Likewiseprocess scaling has to be verified and reflected by scaling laws, which are closelyrelated to device physics.This thesis examines the suitability of the model formulation for applicability to production-ready SiGe HBT processes. A derivation of the most recent model formulationimplemented in HICUM version L2.3x, is followed by simulation studies, whichconfirm their agreement with electrical characteristics of high-speed devices. Thefundamental geometry scaling laws, as implemented in the custom-developed modellibrary, are described in detail with a strong link to the specific device architecture.In order to correctly determine the respective model parameters, newly developed andexisting extraction routines have been exercised with recent HBT technology generationsand benchmarked by means of numerical device simulation, where applicable.Especially the extraction of extrinsic elements such as series resistances and parasiticcapacitances were improved along with the substrate network.The extraction steps and methods required to obtain a fully scalable model library wereexercised and presented using measured data from a recent industry-leading 55nmSiGe BiCMOS process, reaching switching speeds in excess of 300GHz. Finally theextracted model card was verified for the respective technology.