Middle childhood is a critical period of attentional development. Previous research has linked neural oscillations in the theta frequency band to controlled attentional and cognitive processes, which has been replicated in children and adults. The development of executive attention, which biases attention and alters mental representation in the service of task goals, is preceded by development of sustained attention, and further selective sustained attention. These three attentional constructs can be represented by Posner’s altering (sustained) orienting (selective sustained) and executive attention networks. Effortful control, a temperament trait describing individual differences in ability to exert self-regulation, has been linked to efficiency of the executive attention system. To examine attentional engagement (within task) and demand (between task) electroencephalography was recorded from 226 six- and nine-year-old children at medial and lateral, frontal, and parietal scalp locations during a baseline, visual search, and the Attention Network Task to measure sustained, selective sustained and executive attention, respectively. Repeated measures MANOVA of frontal and parietal scalp locations indicate multiple complex three-way interactions of region (medial vs lateral), Age, and Block/Task. Frontal and parietal activation patterns were also different from each other, as well as between age groups. When temperament factors, effortful control and surgency, were included in the model (repeated measures MANCOVA) most interactions were no longer significant. We therefore find, in accord with previous literature, that medial frontal theta is impacted by attentional engagement and demand but this association is heavily impacted by individual biologically based differences. / M.S. / During middle childhood, kids' ability to pay attention develops into a more sophisticated, adult-like form. Scientists have found that the way our brain waves work in a certain frequency (called theta) is connected to our ability to focus and think. This is true for both kids and adults. There are three critical forms of attention identified by developmental and cognitive researchers. First, there's the kind where you can stay focused on something for a while. Then, there's another type where you not only stay focused but also pick out specific things to focus on. Lastly, there's the kind where you can change your focus to fit the task you're doing. Our goal was to examine how theta brain waves relate to each of these forms of attention and how those change after three years. Using the electroencephalography technique, we measured brain activity of used a special brain scanning technique on 226 kids when they were six and nine years old, while they completed three tasks. One analysis focused on attentional engagement, how children focused over the course of a single task, and the other on attentional demand, how children focused differently as tasks got more difficult. We found power in the theta frequency band decreased with age, which means that children’s attentional processing was more efficient the older they were. We also found that theta in the front of the brain did not change greatly over the course of the task except for the initial set of trials. This was different from the middle regions of the brain, which changed a lot over the course of the task. Theta power in both frontal and middle parts of the brain was different between the tasks, and harder tasks were associated with more theta. Finally, we found that temperament, a child’s individual self-control and excitability, greatly explained the differences in theta power over the tasks.

The purpose of the current study was to explore the genetic and environmental association between working memory and different behavioral aspects of the attention network (i.e., executive attention, alerting attention, and orienting attention), using a twin design. Data were from 131 monozygotic (39% male) and 173 same-sex dizygotic (44% male) twins. Individual differences in working memory performance and behavioral measures of executive attention, alerting attention, and orienting attention were found to be moderately heritable. A modest nonshared environmental effect was found for all variables. Individual differences in working memory were significantly correlated with variability in executive and alerting attention, but not orienting attention. All of the association between working memory and executive as well as alerting attention was statistically mediated by genetic influences, indicating a common genetic mechanism or mechanisms underlying the links between working memory and certain behavioral indicators of attention. / Master of Science

Parental socialization of emotions has been a topic of interest in developmental research for decades because of the importance of understanding how children learn about their emotions. The influence of the sex of both parent and child, however, are often not considered, and research on parent emotion socialization has often focused on infants and young children. Not considering these constructs during middle childhood ignores the importance of this developmental period, during which children have a more established gender identity and thus might recognize a shared identity with a parent. Emotion socialization from both parents during this developmental period has the potential to differentially inform children’s expectations of gender norms related to emotions. Men and women interpret and express their emotions differently and may differentially socialize their children regarding emotions along these patterns. The current study examined parental emotion coaching and elaboration observed during discussions of positive and negative emotions between 44 children with their mothers and fathers, with specific focus on the sex of the parents and children. I expected that mothers would engage in more emotion coaching and use a more elaborative style than fathers. Additionally, I expected that parents of girls would be more encouraging of positive emotions than parents of boys and that parents of boys would be more discouraging of negative emotions than parents of girls. Children between the ages of 6 and 9 visited the Children’s Emotions Lab with their mothers and fathers on separate occasions and participated in an emotion talk task with each parent. Each pair discussed a time when the child was happy and a time when the child was upset; each discussion lasted two and a half minutes each. I found a significant emotion valence by child sex interaction: parents were more elaborative and encouraging when discussing positive emotions with daughters than with sons and that parents were more elaborative and encouraging when discussing negative events with sons than with daughters. There was also specific parent gender by child sex interaction: mothers were less elaborative and encouraging with daughters than sons and that fathers were less elaborative and encouraging with sons than daughters. Findings from this study suggest that parents’ experiences with their own emotions influence their emotion socialization practices with their children. Recommended practices for future studies and interventions are suggested. / M.S. / Emotion socialization refers to the ways we come to understand the rules, expectations, and understanding of emotions. Research often looks at the ways that parents socialize, or teach, emotions to their children by examining parent attitudes about children’s emotions, parents’ reactions to children’s emotions, and parent-child discussions of emotions. However, often this research is limited in scope, examining only mothers’ parenting, only examining socialization of negative emotions, or using only parent-report data. Research has previously found that boys and girls are socialized differently when it comes to emotions, and I want to build on established research to examine these differences further. For this study, I have observed parent-child conversations about positive and negative emotions, including both mothers and fathers. Forty-four children participated with both their mothers and fathers. I looked at parental elaboration, which is how parents ask for and provide information within a conversation, and parental encouragement of emotions, which relates to how parents validate children’s emotions and help children to understand cause and consequences of their emotions. I hypothesized that mothers would be more elaborative, that is ask for and give more information in conversations, and encouraging, that is helping children to accept, understand and respond to their emotions, than fathers. I also hypothesized that parents of daughters would be more elaborative and encouraging when talking about positive emotions and that parents of sons would be less encouraging of negative emotions. Only parts of my hypotheses were supported by the data from my study. Mothers and fathers did have different strategies of emotion socialization, and fathers of daughters were more encouraging of positive emotions. However, parents of sons were more encouraging of negative emotions. Further, parents were less elaborative and encouraging of their same-sex children’s emotions. These findings suggest that parents’ own experiences, and possibly even the ways their own parents socialized them, is related to the ways they socialize their children.

Episodic memory refers to context based explicit memory and shows vast improvements during middle childhood. In this study, episodic encoding was manipulated using stimuli that were hypothesized to require active or passive processing. Nine to eleven-year-old children were presented with a recall task using lower resolution (active processing) and clear (passive processing) images. It was hypothesized that children would recall more low resolution images than clear images. Executive function ability was also assessed to investigate possible contributions to performance. Furthermore, this study investigated whether frontal and temporal brain electrophysiology predicted unique variance in recall performance. Results suggested that overall there were no performance differences between low resolution and clear images; however, differences may exist within task blocks. Electrophysiology at temporal scalp locations and executive functions predicted unique variance in memory task performance. Specifically, set-shifting and working memory predicted a unique amount of variance in memory task performance. The results suggest that explicit memory may require certain executive processes more than others, and that active and passive processing may enhance this effect. / Master of Science

Working with sexually abused children and conducting forensic assessments is a difficult task for many professionals working in the field of child sexual abuse. In this specialised field, it is imperative that professionals are aware of the disclosure process, as well as what contributes to, or hampers the disclosure of sexual abuse. The aim of this study was to explore and describe the disclosure of sexual abuse during middle childhood years from a forensic social work perspective. Research indicates that there are numerous factors that can play a role in the disclosure of sexual abuse, but that there are still shortcomings about disclosure in literature. The researcher adopted a qualitative approach to explore the disclosure patterns of sexual abuse during middle childhood with professionals working in the field of forensic social work. Eight semi-structured interviews were conducted with professionals who have experience in forensic social work. The interviews focused on the disclosure patterns of children during middle childhood, as well as the relationship with the perpetrator, the responses of the caregiver that is characterised by shock and denial, how long children take to disclose sexual abuse, the relationship between the caregiver and the child concerned, as well as recommendations in the context of forensic social work and the disclosure of sexual abuse. The data from the semi-structured interviews was analysed and divided into themes and subthemes, which were further described and linked with the relevant literature. It became clear that the disclosure of child sexual abuse is a complex phenomenon, which is valuable when working in the forensic context. The disclosure process was explored, and certain factors were highlighted that contribute to the disclosure of sexual abuse, as well as factors that hamper disclosure. Some of these factors include intra- and extra-familial abuse, the developmental stage of the child concerned, negative responses from the caregiver, the presence of threats and grooming as characteristics of the relationship between the child and the perpetrator, positive attachment with a caregiver that contributes to disclosure and the highly individualised cases of child sexual abuse. The respondents also made practical recommendations regarding disclosure and indicated how important it is to have the necessary training in order to handle the disclosure of sexual abuse in the correct manner. / MSW (Forensic Practice), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Working with sexually abused children and conducting forensic assessments is a difficult task for many professionals working in the field of child sexual abuse. In this specialised field, it is imperative that professionals are aware of the disclosure process, as well as what contributes to, or hampers the disclosure of sexual abuse. The aim of this study was to explore and describe the disclosure of sexual abuse during middle childhood years from a forensic social work perspective. Research indicates that there are numerous factors that can play a role in the disclosure of sexual abuse, but that there are still shortcomings about disclosure in literature. The researcher adopted a qualitative approach to explore the disclosure patterns of sexual abuse during middle childhood with professionals working in the field of forensic social work. Eight semi-structured interviews were conducted with professionals who have experience in forensic social work. The interviews focused on the disclosure patterns of children during middle childhood, as well as the relationship with the perpetrator, the responses of the caregiver that is characterised by shock and denial, how long children take to disclose sexual abuse, the relationship between the caregiver and the child concerned, as well as recommendations in the context of forensic social work and the disclosure of sexual abuse. The data from the semi-structured interviews was analysed and divided into themes and subthemes, which were further described and linked with the relevant literature. It became clear that the disclosure of child sexual abuse is a complex phenomenon, which is valuable when working in the forensic context. The disclosure process was explored, and certain factors were highlighted that contribute to the disclosure of sexual abuse, as well as factors that hamper disclosure. Some of these factors include intra- and extra-familial abuse, the developmental stage of the child concerned, negative responses from the caregiver, the presence of threats and grooming as characteristics of the relationship between the child and the perpetrator, positive attachment with a caregiver that contributes to disclosure and the highly individualised cases of child sexual abuse. The respondents also made practical recommendations regarding disclosure and indicated how important it is to have the necessary training in order to handle the disclosure of sexual abuse in the correct manner. / MSW (Forensic Practice), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Huguenot Primary School expressed its need for a scientifically based programme which could be used to implement, within the context of the holistic approach and the community of Wellington, the principle of respect in the current curriculum. Specific components for a guidance programme have been identified by means of focus group meetings gathered from the target population (parents, educators and learners from Huguenot Primary School, and role models within the community). The theoretical base of Kohlberg (1964, 1966, 1978, and 1985) and the three levels of moral development were applicable in this instance. The Gestalt perspective and field theory formed the paradigm of the study. From the qualitative approach, applied research with an explorative and descriptive nature was used to identify and describe the above-mentioned components. The instrumental case study method was utilized as research strategy. A purposive test sample was done in order to compile a representative target population. / Social Work

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Mark A. Barnett / To date, the research testing the predictors of relational aggression has largely mirrored that of the more robust physical aggression literature. Similar to the physical aggression literature, research on relational aggression has focused on age and gender differences and, more recently, the possible associations between relational aggression and other variables. However, there is a lack of research investigating the parent and peer behaviors that could potentially model relationally aggressive behavior in children. The current study drew upon social-cognitive models of aggression to test such associations. Specifically, I measured parents’ use of psychological control with their children, parents’ use of manipulative behavior with their children and other adults, and peer groups’ use of relational aggression to determine whether these variables predicted children’s use of relational aggression. It was expected that the aforementioned variables would be positively associated with children’s use of relational aggression. One hundred and sixty-five fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade children (52% male) enrolled in public elementary schools in the Midwest participated in the study. Additionally, 137 female and 70 male caregivers also participated. The children completed questionnaires to measure a) their use of relational aggression, b) their peers’ use of relational and physical aggression, c) the cohesiveness and distinctiveness of their main group of friends, and d) their parents’ use of psychological control. The caregivers also completed questionnaires that assessed a) their behaviors toward other adults when angry, b) how they respond to their children’s misbehavior, and c) social desirability. Consistent with Social Learning Theory and the Social-Cognitive Theory of Aggression, children’s use of relational aggression was positively related to their mothers’ use of psychological control and to their peer groups’ use of relational aggression especially when that peer group was seen as relatively cohesive and distinct. In addition, children’s use of relational aggression was more strongly associated with their parents’ use of psychological control than was their peer groups’ use of relational aggression. The current study was the first to examine and compare the associations between parent- and peer-related variables and children’s use of relational aggression.

Thesis advisor: Mary E. Walsh / Developmental-contextual theory asserts that the contexts in which children develop have the potential to foster or inhibit healthy development (Lerner, 1984; 1995). Given the potential for developmental contexts to promote positive development for at-risk children, systemic student support interventions have been developed to change school contexts into more supportive environments for healthy child development (e.g., BCCOSS, 2010; Communities in Schools, 2010; Dryfoos, 2003). The current study examined the effects of one such student support program, City Connects (formerly Boston Connects). Previous evaluation research has found that City Connects positively impacts multiple factors of child development (BCCCFCP, 2009; BCCOSS, 2010). This study expanded upon the evaluation research to investigate the relationship between the City Connects intervention and specific domains of social development: friendship, bullying, peer victimization, relationship with teacher, and school belonging. Positive social development has been found to foster resilience and promote positive child development in other domains. Thus, this study also examined these domains of social development as the mechanisms through which City Connects is related to student report card grades in math, reading, behavior, and work habits. Within the current study sample of 3rd through 5th grade students in 2007, significant direct relationships between City Connects and domains of social development were not found. Since City Connects did not significantly predict improvements in social development, the mediating hypothesis was not supported. However, follow-up analyses revealed indirect relationships between City Connects and domains of social development, which were mediated by report card grades in reading and work habits. Reading grades significantly mediated the relationships between City Connects and school belonging, peer victimization, and bullying behavior. Work habit grades approached significance as a mediator of the relationships between City Connects and school belonging, relationship with teacher, bullying behavior and peer victimization. The current study underscores the complexity of developmental pathways, and the need for complex, multifaceted student support interventions to help support positive child development for low-income, urban children. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2011. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental, and Educational Psychology.

The current investigation compared the fit of three models of internalizing in middle childhood: (1) a unitary factor model, (2) a two-factor model corresponding to the DSM-IV Anxiety/Depression distinction, and (3) a two-factor model corresponding to the Fear/Distress distinction observed in structural studies of adult psychopathology (Krueger, 1999; Slade & Watson, 2006). Mothers of 344 children (50.6% female, mean age = 9.97, SD = .82) reported on childhood internalizing symptoms and personality traits. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed acceptable fit indices for all three models. The unitary factor model provided the most parsimonious fit to the data. Although the structural analyses suggested that internalizing subfactors were not differentiated in middle childhood, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that personality dimensions uniquely predicted fear and distress disorders. These results suggest that personality foreshadows later psychopathology structure before it is manifest at the symptom level.