The purpose of the research study was to describe girls' engagement with computers during middle childhood and to delineate the factors that initiated and sustained the engagement. The research questions were: 1) What patterns distinguish how girls engage in web page development during middle childhood? 2) What roles do environmental and personal factors play in the girls' engagement in the activity of web page development? 3) What are the perceived reasons for the girls' achievement in creating web pages? The research design followed a qualitative case study approach with descriptive methods of data collection. Four participants were selected through nomination by their elementary school principal based on their computer attitude and aptitude. The data collected included interviews, observations, artifacts, and interviewer's reflective notes. The data were analyzed through coding assisted by NUD*IST computer software. Overall, the access to computers, the relationships with powerful others, and the girls' perceptions of their ability to control influential factors, all worked together as antecedents for engagement with computers. The roles performed and the necessary social interaction sustained the engagement. The product, an educational web page, demonstrated successful achievement. The researcher provided recommendations for educators to create conditions for girls to achieve using computers, which impacts middle childhood girls' perceptions of future career options. / Ph. D.

The current study investigated the association of interparental conflict, parent-child attachment, and children's behavior problems in middle childhood. Although the effects of interparental conflict have been studied extensively, there has been little research done in the developmental period of middle childhood. This study examined the potential mediating role of the attachment relationship between parents and children in a community sample consisting of 86 two-parent families with at least one child between the ages of 8-11. Path modeling procedures indicated that attachment security serves as a mediator between interparental conflict and child behavior problems based on child reports. In particular, child-reported attachment security to the mother significantly mediated the association between children's perceptions of threat from interparental conflict and child-reported internalizing and inattentive/hyperactive symptoms. Child-reported attachment security to the father was not a significant mediator and mediation was not supported in parent-report models. The current findings have implications for families experiencing conflict and speak to the importance of attachment in the parent-child relationship when explaining the association between instances of interparental conflict and child behavioral outcomes. In particular, parents who engage in conflict can prevent the damaging effects of that conflict by making the conflict less overt, explaining to children the reasons for the conflict, and providing children with some assurance that a secure parent-child and interparental relationship is still present, despite the conflict.

This study is part of an inter-university project, for which co-workers from Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education and University of the Free State gathered the data during 2000. The population consisted of children in their late middle childhood (grade 4 to grade 7) from schools in the Vaalpark and Bloemfontein (Free State), Potchefstroom (North West), Badplaas (Mpumalanga), Krugersdorp and Kempton Park (Gauteng), Kimberley (Northern Cape) and Durban (Kwazulu Natal) regions. A random sample, which was representative of the different race and socio-economic strata, was drawn from these children. The literature study indicated that little is known about the nature of locus of control in younger children and its relationship to creativity in the South African context. The aims of this study are therefore to determine the nature of locus of control in middle childhood; to examine locus of control in different age groups and to establish the relationship between locus of control and creativity. By using a single cross-sectional design, creativity was measured with subscales of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking and locus of control with the Nowicki-Strickland questionnaire. In conclusion the current study suggests that locus of control in late middle childhood has become slightly more externally orientated than it was 30 years ago. Cultural factors and the South-African context are much different in this study population though, and care must be taken not to make direct comparisons. With regard to the differences in the locus of control between the two age groups there is a definite statistical difference, with a shift to a more internal orientation in the older group. However, no practical significance was found. The hypothesis that externally orientated students would be less creative could not be validated and no correlation between locus of control and creativity could be discerned. These results seem to confirm a more dual dimensional view of some authors, in that a "bilocal" person strikes a healthy balance between beliefs in internal and external control, resulting in a more effective coping style. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

This study is part of an inter-university project, for which co-workers from Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education and University of the Free State gathered the data during 2000. The population consisted of children in their late middle childhood (grade 4 to grade 7) from schools in the Vaalpark and Bloemfontein (Free State), Potchefstroom (North West), Badplaas (Mpumalanga), Krugersdorp and Kempton Park (Gauteng), Kimberley (Northern Cape) and Durban (Kwazulu Natal) regions. A random sample, which was representative of the different race and socio-economic strata, was drawn from these children. The literature study indicated that little is known about the nature of locus of control in younger children and its relationship to creativity in the South African context. The aims of this study are therefore to determine the nature of locus of control in middle childhood; to examine locus of control in different age groups and to establish the relationship between locus of control and creativity. By using a single cross-sectional design, creativity was measured with subscales of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking and locus of control with the Nowicki-Strickland questionnaire. In conclusion the current study suggests that locus of control in late middle childhood has become slightly more externally orientated than it was 30 years ago. Cultural factors and the South-African context are much different in this study population though, and care must be taken not to make direct comparisons. With regard to the differences in the locus of control between the two age groups there is a definite statistical difference, with a shift to a more internal orientation in the older group. However, no practical significance was found. The hypothesis that externally orientated students would be less creative could not be validated and no correlation between locus of control and creativity could be discerned. These results seem to confirm a more dual dimensional view of some authors, in that a "bilocal" person strikes a healthy balance between beliefs in internal and external control, resulting in a more effective coping style. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Negatively biased facial affect discernment may prompt socially inhibited behavior. Characterizing normative patterns of facial affect discernment across emotions and expression intensity during middle childhood will help to identify subtle, yet meaningful, deviations that may emerge for individuals and potentially negatively impact their social behavior. Facial affect discernment for happy, sad, and angry expressions across low, medium, and high intensities and parent-reported socially inhibited behavior were measured in this study in a sample of 7-10 year-old children (N = 80; 53% female). Discernment accuracy improved with increased expression intensity for all emotions. Specifically, we found a quartic effect for the association between intensity and accuracy for anger and negative quadratics effects with decelerating positive rates of changes for associations between intensity and accuracy for happiness and intensity and accuracy for sadness. Additionally, discernment accuracy for happiness was generally better than for sadness and anger; discernment accuracy for anger was generally better than for sadness. However, at low intensity, discernment accuracy for sadness was comparable to accuracy for happiness but better than for anger. Neither misidentification of neutral and low intensity faces as negative nor discernment accuracy of happiness at low intensity was significantly associated with socially inhibited behaviors. Although accurate discernment of anger and sadness at low intensity was not significantly related to socially inhibited behavior, better discernment accuracy of anger and sadness at medium intensity was significantly related to more socially inhibited behavior. Overall, these results enhance understanding of normative facial affect discernment and its relation to maladaptive social behaviors in middle childhood, a developmental stage at which intervention efforts may prove effective at heading off detrimental outcomes associated with socially inhibited behavior such as loneliness, low self-esteem, peer victimization, social anxiety, and depression that increase in late childhood and adolescence.

The South African society is characterised by high levels of risk factors which can have a significantly negative impact on the development of children. The impact of risk factors from an early age can hinder intellectual and emotional growth during the critical stage (middle childhood) of development. Middle childhood can be described as the relatively tranquil period during which patterns and routines are embedded and cognitive-, social-, emotional- and self-conceptualisation are formed. Children are daily exposed to risks and stressful events that can lead to negative outcomes. The impact of risks and adversity sets challenges for the child that test his/her coping abilities and perseverance within a given period and situation. The idea behind resilience is to accept these challenges through utilising protective factors and decreasing the effects of risk factors. The Children’s Coping Strategies Checklist of Ayers and Sandler (1999) was used to assess resilience and The Resilience and Youth Development Module (RYDM) of WestEd (1999 & 2002) to measure participants’ perceptions of the school, home, environment and peer group as external protective domains as well as participants ability in seven psychosocial internal assets and their experience of certain risk factors. A biographical questionnaire was used to gather demographic information of the learners. The findings indicated positive coping abilities (resilience), protective perceptions of external and internal assets and low levels of risk experience (resilience) in the majority of participants. Significant differences were found between boys and girls and between the age groups 10 and 13 years. Theoretically, these findings indicate resilience in the majority of this group of learners who reside in a socio-economically deprived milieu characterised by risk factors. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2011

The South African society is characterised by high levels of risk factors which can have a significantly negative impact on the development of children. The impact of risk factors from an early age can hinder intellectual and emotional growth during the critical stage (middle childhood) of development. Middle childhood can be described as the relatively tranquil period during which patterns and routines are embedded and cognitive-, social-, emotional- and self-conceptualisation are formed. Children are daily exposed to risks and stressful events that can lead to negative outcomes. The impact of risks and adversity sets challenges for the child that test his/her coping abilities and perseverance within a given period and situation. The idea behind resilience is to accept these challenges through utilising protective factors and decreasing the effects of risk factors. The Children’s Coping Strategies Checklist of Ayers and Sandler (1999) was used to assess resilience and The Resilience and Youth Development Module (RYDM) of WestEd (1999 & 2002) to measure participants’ perceptions of the school, home, environment and peer group as external protective domains as well as participants ability in seven psychosocial internal assets and their experience of certain risk factors. A biographical questionnaire was used to gather demographic information of the learners. The findings indicated positive coping abilities (resilience), protective perceptions of external and internal assets and low levels of risk experience (resilience) in the majority of participants. Significant differences were found between boys and girls and between the age groups 10 and 13 years. Theoretically, these findings indicate resilience in the majority of this group of learners who reside in a socio-economically deprived milieu characterised by risk factors. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2011

Despite budding research on parent-child discrepant perceptions of a child’s psychosocial functioning, the potential difference in individual perception of coping socialization is unclear. Further, literature suggests the onset of various impulse-control disorders occurs around middle childhood. Thus, the current study used a phenomenological approach and thematic analysis to examine perspectives of coping socialization, identify intended take away messages, and examine the perceived impact of inconsistent understanding of the interaction. Results indicated both parents and children use verbal and physical cues to understand one another during coping socialization and that their lab discussion was representative of their typical interactions. Themes emerged regarding parents’ intention to help their child develop personal values, understand the impact of emotions, and provide solution driven coping strategies. Lastly, parent-child dyads endorsed negative outcomes associated with discrepant take away messages. The current study highlights the importance of continued qualitative research in discrepant parent-child perceptions of coping socialization.

Middle childhood is a critical period of attentional development. Previous research has linked neural oscillations in the theta frequency band to controlled attentional and cognitive processes, which has been replicated in children and adults. The development of executive attention, which biases attention and alters mental representation in the service of task goals, is preceded by development of sustained attention, and further selective sustained attention. These three attentional constructs can be represented by Posner’s altering (sustained) orienting (selective sustained) and executive attention networks. Effortful control, a temperament trait describing individual differences in ability to exert self-regulation, has been linked to efficiency of the executive attention system. To examine attentional engagement (within task) and demand (between task) electroencephalography was recorded from 226 six- and nine-year-old children at medial and lateral, frontal, and parietal scalp locations during a baseline, visual search, and the Attention Network Task to measure sustained, selective sustained and executive attention, respectively. Repeated measures MANOVA of frontal and parietal scalp locations indicate multiple complex three-way interactions of region (medial vs lateral), Age, and Block/Task. Frontal and parietal activation patterns were also different from each other, as well as between age groups. When temperament factors, effortful control and surgency, were included in the model (repeated measures MANCOVA) most interactions were no longer significant. We therefore find, in accord with previous literature, that medial frontal theta is impacted by attentional engagement and demand but this association is heavily impacted by individual biologically based differences. / M.S. / During middle childhood, kids' ability to pay attention develops into a more sophisticated, adult-like form. Scientists have found that the way our brain waves work in a certain frequency (called theta) is connected to our ability to focus and think. This is true for both kids and adults. There are three critical forms of attention identified by developmental and cognitive researchers. First, there's the kind where you can stay focused on something for a while. Then, there's another type where you not only stay focused but also pick out specific things to focus on. Lastly, there's the kind where you can change your focus to fit the task you're doing. Our goal was to examine how theta brain waves relate to each of these forms of attention and how those change after three years. Using the electroencephalography technique, we measured brain activity of used a special brain scanning technique on 226 kids when they were six and nine years old, while they completed three tasks. One analysis focused on attentional engagement, how children focused over the course of a single task, and the other on attentional demand, how children focused differently as tasks got more difficult. We found power in the theta frequency band decreased with age, which means that children’s attentional processing was more efficient the older they were. We also found that theta in the front of the brain did not change greatly over the course of the task except for the initial set of trials. This was different from the middle regions of the brain, which changed a lot over the course of the task. Theta power in both frontal and middle parts of the brain was different between the tasks, and harder tasks were associated with more theta. Finally, we found that temperament, a child’s individual self-control and excitability, greatly explained the differences in theta power over the tasks.

The purpose of the current study was to explore the genetic and environmental association between working memory and different behavioral aspects of the attention network (i.e., executive attention, alerting attention, and orienting attention), using a twin design. Data were from 131 monozygotic (39% male) and 173 same-sex dizygotic (44% male) twins. Individual differences in working memory performance and behavioral measures of executive attention, alerting attention, and orienting attention were found to be moderately heritable. A modest nonshared environmental effect was found for all variables. Individual differences in working memory were significantly correlated with variability in executive and alerting attention, but not orienting attention. All of the association between working memory and executive as well as alerting attention was statistically mediated by genetic influences, indicating a common genetic mechanism or mechanisms underlying the links between working memory and certain behavioral indicators of attention. / Master of Science