A broader research project was undertaken on experiences of care and respect within intergenerational relationships. The current study, which forms part of this project, focused more specifically on adolescents’ motivations for providing care to persons older than 60 years. Care is normally expressed in the interactions between people, and in this instance between generational members. In the African context, care between generational members is important because care is particularly provided in a social and familial context between generations and not necessarily by the government in terms of formal care services. Care, specifically for older persons has become a scarce commodity. In the light of different aspects like the growing older population, poverty, unemployment, and HIV/AIDS certain structural changes in families and between generations have come about. The changes influenced caregiving by delivering a larger number of dependant persons and a lack of capacity to provide care. Adolescents are important in the relationship with older persons, because often the relationship between persons from different generations, who find themselves in a deprived environment, is the only source for the provision of care. The findings of this study can possibly give an indication of how care in relation to older persons are being motivated in order to better plan for the care needs of older persons. The motivation for demonstrating care is particularly important because some motivation types are perceived to encourage more sustainable actions and caregiving than others. Currently intergenerational support and care are in short supply, suggesting the presence of less sustainable types of motivation. Care, in this study, refers to the satisfaction of social goals and psychological needs by means of tangible (instrumental/physical care) and intangible (emotional care) exchanges between intergenerational members. Intergenerational care encompasses upward and downward care. Upward care occurs when care is transferred from a younger generation to older persons, while downward care refers to care provided by older persons to younger people. Previous studies referred mostly to informal caregiving, downward care, or upward care provided by adult children. A limited number of studies exist of upward care provided by adolescents, specifically to persons older than 60, and research on younger people’s motivations for care is also rare. The theoretical framework that informs this study is Self-Determination Theory (SDT). This theory revolves around motivation, known as the force that compels one to act, or to conduct an activity such as care. SDT includes two broad categories of motivation types, namely autonomous and controlled motivations. The autonomous (self-determined) motivation category includes intrinsic motivation (i.e. conduct that stems from the inherently satisfying experience a particular activity offers), along with two well-internalized extrinsic motivation subtypes (namely identification and integrated regulation). Controlled motivation includes two more controlled and less internalized motivation subtypes (namely external and introjected regulation). Extrinsic motivation is when an activity is performed for a separate and external outcome. The different types of motivation consequently incorporate differing levels of self-determination to conduct certain activities. The more autonomous (self-determined) the motivation, the more sustainable actions of care. Adolescents are capable in terms of ego and cognitive development to be more self-determined and intrinsically motivated. Even though they may have the capacity to be more self-determined motivated, this is not always the case. Persons at this stage of psychosocial development according to Erikson’s lifespan approach focus more on peer relationships, and tend to conform to community expectations and social group norms. In such cases adolescents may experience motivations that include less self-determined motivation types, because they are controlled by external expectations and norms. Unfortunately less self-determined motivation types may also produce less sustainable care actions. A qualitative research method was applied to describe adolescents’ experiences of care in relation to older persons. In the findings, motivation for care was a major theme and it was therefore decided to focus only on this aspect in this study. The participants included 15 Setswana-speaking adolescents (seven boys and eight girls) between the ages of 12 and 16, who were selected by means of a nonprobability convenience sampling method. Data were collected in an economically vulnerable community where the participants lived, Vaalharts agricultural valley in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. This community is considered economically vulnerable because the majority of its members receive only irregular income and have to rely on meagre government grants to support multi-generational households. 15 Participants were included in the research; eight individuals participated in the Mmogo-method®, a projective visual data-gathering method, and all 15 participants completed self-reflective journal entries to supplement the data. During the Mmogo-method® session, participants were asked to build something that would show how they experienced care in relation to a person older than 60, using a lump of clay, grass stalks and beads. The self-reflective research journals included semi-structured questions to guide the participants. Descriptive phenomenological psychological, thematic, and visual analysis was employed to analyse the collected data. Credibility, dependability, transferability and conformability were applied to ensure the trustworthiness of the study. Moreover, ethical research conduct was ensured by applying the guidelines provided by the Department of Health for responsible and ethical research conduct in South Africa as well as the framework provided in Chapter 9 of the National Health Act 61 of 2003. Firstly a perceived absence of older persons in caring relationships emerged from the findings. The findings further revealed that the younger generation was moved by external stimuli such as observing struggling older persons or by obeying older persons’ explicit requests for help, to provide physical/instrumental care to older persons. In response to external stimuli adolescents were extrinsically motivated to care which was observed in obedience and perspective taking. The participants were also extrinsically motivated by feelings of obligation; to ensure older persons‟ happiness; from their submissive position in relation to older persons; and for returning care that were bestowed on them by the older persons. However, although the participants were extrinsically motivated to care, different levels of self-determination and self-choice seemed to be present in their behaviour. These findings provide a broader awareness with regard to adolescents’ motivations for care provision. The knowledge gained from this project could serve to inform intergenerational programmes designed to facilitate feelings of autonomy and emphasize gratitude as a motivator in intergenerational and interpersonal environments. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A broader research project was undertaken on experiences of care and respect within intergenerational relationships. The current study, which forms part of this project, focused more specifically on adolescents’ motivations for providing care to persons older than 60 years. Care is normally expressed in the interactions between people, and in this instance between generational members. In the African context, care between generational members is important because care is particularly provided in a social and familial context between generations and not necessarily by the government in terms of formal care services. Care, specifically for older persons has become a scarce commodity. In the light of different aspects like the growing older population, poverty, unemployment, and HIV/AIDS certain structural changes in families and between generations have come about. The changes influenced caregiving by delivering a larger number of dependant persons and a lack of capacity to provide care. Adolescents are important in the relationship with older persons, because often the relationship between persons from different generations, who find themselves in a deprived environment, is the only source for the provision of care. The findings of this study can possibly give an indication of how care in relation to older persons are being motivated in order to better plan for the care needs of older persons. The motivation for demonstrating care is particularly important because some motivation types are perceived to encourage more sustainable actions and caregiving than others. Currently intergenerational support and care are in short supply, suggesting the presence of less sustainable types of motivation. Care, in this study, refers to the satisfaction of social goals and psychological needs by means of tangible (instrumental/physical care) and intangible (emotional care) exchanges between intergenerational members. Intergenerational care encompasses upward and downward care. Upward care occurs when care is transferred from a younger generation to older persons, while downward care refers to care provided by older persons to younger people. Previous studies referred mostly to informal caregiving, downward care, or upward care provided by adult children. A limited number of studies exist of upward care provided by adolescents, specifically to persons older than 60, and research on younger people’s motivations for care is also rare. The theoretical framework that informs this study is Self-Determination Theory (SDT). This theory revolves around motivation, known as the force that compels one to act, or to conduct an activity such as care. SDT includes two broad categories of motivation types, namely autonomous and controlled motivations. The autonomous (self-determined) motivation category includes intrinsic motivation (i.e. conduct that stems from the inherently satisfying experience a particular activity offers), along with two well-internalized extrinsic motivation subtypes (namely identification and integrated regulation). Controlled motivation includes two more controlled and less internalized motivation subtypes (namely external and introjected regulation). Extrinsic motivation is when an activity is performed for a separate and external outcome. The different types of motivation consequently incorporate differing levels of self-determination to conduct certain activities. The more autonomous (self-determined) the motivation, the more sustainable actions of care. Adolescents are capable in terms of ego and cognitive development to be more self-determined and intrinsically motivated. Even though they may have the capacity to be more self-determined motivated, this is not always the case. Persons at this stage of psychosocial development according to Erikson’s lifespan approach focus more on peer relationships, and tend to conform to community expectations and social group norms. In such cases adolescents may experience motivations that include less self-determined motivation types, because they are controlled by external expectations and norms. Unfortunately less self-determined motivation types may also produce less sustainable care actions. A qualitative research method was applied to describe adolescents’ experiences of care in relation to older persons. In the findings, motivation for care was a major theme and it was therefore decided to focus only on this aspect in this study. The participants included 15 Setswana-speaking adolescents (seven boys and eight girls) between the ages of 12 and 16, who were selected by means of a nonprobability convenience sampling method. Data were collected in an economically vulnerable community where the participants lived, Vaalharts agricultural valley in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. This community is considered economically vulnerable because the majority of its members receive only irregular income and have to rely on meagre government grants to support multi-generational households. 15 Participants were included in the research; eight individuals participated in the Mmogo-method®, a projective visual data-gathering method, and all 15 participants completed self-reflective journal entries to supplement the data. During the Mmogo-method® session, participants were asked to build something that would show how they experienced care in relation to a person older than 60, using a lump of clay, grass stalks and beads. The self-reflective research journals included semi-structured questions to guide the participants. Descriptive phenomenological psychological, thematic, and visual analysis was employed to analyse the collected data. Credibility, dependability, transferability and conformability were applied to ensure the trustworthiness of the study. Moreover, ethical research conduct was ensured by applying the guidelines provided by the Department of Health for responsible and ethical research conduct in South Africa as well as the framework provided in Chapter 9 of the National Health Act 61 of 2003. Firstly a perceived absence of older persons in caring relationships emerged from the findings. The findings further revealed that the younger generation was moved by external stimuli such as observing struggling older persons or by obeying older persons’ explicit requests for help, to provide physical/instrumental care to older persons. In response to external stimuli adolescents were extrinsically motivated to care which was observed in obedience and perspective taking. The participants were also extrinsically motivated by feelings of obligation; to ensure older persons‟ happiness; from their submissive position in relation to older persons; and for returning care that were bestowed on them by the older persons. However, although the participants were extrinsically motivated to care, different levels of self-determination and self-choice seemed to be present in their behaviour. These findings provide a broader awareness with regard to adolescents’ motivations for care provision. The knowledge gained from this project could serve to inform intergenerational programmes designed to facilitate feelings of autonomy and emphasize gratitude as a motivator in intergenerational and interpersonal environments. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The aim of the research was to generate a way of identifying resilient and non-resilient middle-adolescent learners in Grade 8 and 9, in a South African township secondary school. The theoretical frameworks on resilience, the developmental context and middle-adolescence were explored and two questionnaires were developed using the literature reviews and the theoretical frameworks. A Resilience Scale was developed to identify resilient and non-resilient learners in a township school, in terms of self-evaluation. A Learning Behaviour Scale was developed to determine the ability of teachers to identify learners’ resilient and non-resilient (academic and social) behaviours. In-depth interviews were conducted to identify themes of resilience and non-resilience in the coping behaviour of adolescents in township schools, and to evaluate the credibility and dependability of the Resilience and Learning Behaviour Scales. The Grade 8 and 9 learners of the school were targeted for the research, since they are within the middle-adolescent age range (14-16 years). The participants were 190 Grade 8 and 9 learners, who all completed the Resilience Scale. In-depth interviews were conducted with twelve learners (in three groups of four according to their Resilience Scale scores, that is, highest, lowest and those grouped most closely around the mean). The curricular teachers were requested to complete the Learning Behaviour scale for the selected interviewees. Although all the items of the Resilience Scale proved statistically reliable, the scale appeared not to reliably identify resilient and non-resilient learners, as judged by the interview data, which indicated ten to be resilient and two to be non-resilient. The interview data were used to determine the resilience status of each learner according to the Resilience Process Models of Kumpfer and Boyd and Eckert. Interviews were found to be the most reliable research tool to identify the resilience and non-resilience status of the participants. The Learning Behaviour Scale yielded strongly inconsistent results and thus failed to identify resilient and non-resilient learners. / Dissertation (MEd (Educational Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Educational Psychology / unrestricted

The purpose of this study was to develop a way of identifying resilient and non-resilient middle-adolescent learners, by means of an instrument or otherwise, in a former Model C-school. The research paradigm is pragmatism and a methodology of mixed methods was used. A questionnaire was developed and qualitative interviews were conducted to verify the results of the questionnaire. The theoretical framework of resilience as well as the developmental phase of middle-adolescence were studied. After conducting a pilot study, the necessary changes were made and an experimental version of the questionnaire was compiled on the basis of Kumpfer’s Transactional Model. This framework includes both processes and outcomes and six main constructs were specified, viz. stressors or challenges, the environmental context, person-environment-transactional process, internal resilience factors, resilience processes and outcomes or means of reintegration. Focus was placed on internal resilience factors. The “Veerkragtigheidsvraelys vir Middel-adolessente (toets)” (VVM-A(t)) (Resilience Questionnaire for Middleadolescents (test)), was compiled consisting of forty two self-evaluation questions using a continuum scale. This self-evaluation scale gives the respondent the opportunity to respond on a continuum line between not like me at all and exactly like me. The place of research, a secondary school in an area reflecting the diversity of the South-African population, was selected by means of convenience sampling and all the grade 8 and 9 learners (294 participants) completed the VVM-A(t). Two factors were identified by means of factor analysis viz. internal locus of control and external locus of control. The VVM-A, consisting of 22 items, was finalised from these results and the participants’ scores were recalculated for the selected items. Interviews for the purpose of verification or rejection of the VVM-A were conducted with twelve participants, four from the group with high scores, four from the group with low scores and four learners that grouped near the median. The in-depth interviews confirmed the results on the VVM-A. This instrument can therefore be regarded as valid and reliable to identify the resilient and non-resilient middle-adolescent learner. / Dissertation (MEd (Educational Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Educational Psychology / unrestricted

This thesis aims to explore a topic of attachment and its influence on adolescents' risk behaviour. First, the theoretical part provides an overview of important milestones of the developmental period of middle adolescence. Afterwards, it introduces the concept of attachment and finally, it deals with risk behaviour with great emphasis on researches addressing the substance abuse, antisocial behaviour and sexual risk behaviour in the Czech Republic. The practical part focuses on correlation between attachment styles (secure, preoccupied, dismissive avoidant and fearful avoidant) and risk behaviour using a questionnaire survey. In addition, it deals with the prevalence of above-mentioned types of risk behaviour and their relationship. Survey dealing with the prevalence of risk behaviour showed that respondents of this research were more likely to engage in risk behaviour in comparison to participants of other studies. It was also confirmed that there was a close association between different types of risk behaviour, so it could be beneficial to perceive them as a unitary syndrome. As far as the main aim of this thesis is concerned, adolescents with the preoccupied attachment style were proved to be at highest risk of development of risk behaviour. These individuals were more likely to use drugs,...

Afrikaans text / This study was undertaken to investigate and explore the experience of the death of a parent and the support for Coloured boys, in the middleadolescence phase, within the school context. Five boys were involved in the study. The gender of the parent was not specified; but all the boys had lost their mothers. The adolescent boys indicated that the death of their mothers was a life changing event; that they struggled emotionally after the death of their mothers but they received enough support from the school, friends and peer group. Family relations were disrupted and the boys often handled their mourning alone. They indicated a continued bond with their mothers, developed a greater sense of responsibility and insight into themselves and the emotions of others deepened. The boys stressed the value of social support but the public display of emotions is influenced by their perceptions of masculinity. / Die studie is onderneem om Kleurling seuns in die middel-adolessente fase se ervaring na die dood van ’n ouer en ondersteuning binne die skoolopset te ondersoek en te verken. Vyf seuns is by die studie betrek. Die geslag van die ouer is nie gespesifiseer nie maar al die seuns het hul moeders verloor. Die adolessente seuns het aangedui dat die dood van hul moeders ’n lewensveranderende gebeurtenis was; dat hulle ’n emosionele stryd gevoer het na die dood van hul moeders maar wel voldoende ondersteuning vanaf die skool, vriende en portuurgroep ontvang het. Gesinsverhoudinge het verbrokkel en die seuns het dikwels alleen hul rou hanteer. Hulle het ’n voortgesette band met hul moeder aangedui, groter verantwoordelikheidsin ontwikkel en insig vir hulself en ander se emosies het verdiep. Die seuns het die waarde van sosiale ondersteuning beklemtoon maar die openlike toon van emosies word deur hul persepsies vanmanlikheid beïnvloed. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Spesialisering in Voorligting)

Afrikaans text / This study was undertaken to investigate and explore the experience of the death of a parent and the support for Coloured boys, in the middleadolescence phase, within the school context. Five boys were involved in the study. The gender of the parent was not specified; but all the boys had lost their mothers. The adolescent boys indicated that the death of their mothers was a life changing event; that they struggled emotionally after the death of their mothers but they received enough support from the school, friends and peer group. Family relations were disrupted and the boys often handled their mourning alone. They indicated a continued bond with their mothers, developed a greater sense of responsibility and insight into themselves and the emotions of others deepened. The boys stressed the value of social support but the public display of emotions is influenced by their perceptions of masculinity. / Die studie is onderneem om Kleurling seuns in die middel-adolessente fase se ervaring na die dood van ’n ouer en ondersteuning binne die skoolopset te ondersoek en te verken. Vyf seuns is by die studie betrek. Die geslag van die ouer is nie gespesifiseer nie maar al die seuns het hul moeders verloor. Die adolessente seuns het aangedui dat die dood van hul moeders ’n lewensveranderende gebeurtenis was; dat hulle ’n emosionele stryd gevoer het na die dood van hul moeders maar wel voldoende ondersteuning vanaf die skool, vriende en portuurgroep ontvang het. Gesinsverhoudinge het verbrokkel en die seuns het dikwels alleen hul rou hanteer. Hulle het ’n voortgesette band met hul moeder aangedui, groter verantwoordelikheidsin ontwikkel en insig vir hulself en ander se emosies het verdiep. Die seuns het die waarde van sosiale ondersteuning beklemtoon maar die openlike toon van emosies word deur hul persepsies vanmanlikheid beïnvloed. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Spesialisering in Voorligting)