Dissertation (Ph.D.) -- The Institute for Clinical Social Work, 1999. / A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Institute of Clinical Social Work in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 415-423).

Despite widespread agreement about the importance of stress for health and well-being, scholars disagree about the types of variables that matter most. On one side, some argue that stress reactivity depends mostly on person-level variables, such as personality, while others contend that stress reactivity depends mostly on situation-level variables, for example chronicity. Researchers from a more integrative perspective assert that stress reactivity depends on an idiosyncratic interaction between person-level and stressor-level variables, for example the finding that lonely people are especially reactive to interpersonal tension. My dissertation reconciles these perspectives by leveraging crossed random effect modeling to determine the percent of stress reactivity attributable to each of these types of variables; the person, the situation, and the person-by-situation interaction. In Study 1, 368 undergraduate college students reacted to 60 unique situations in the context of normal daily life on two separate occasions. In Study 2, 955 adults from the Midlife in the U.S. study self-reported their reactivity to stressful situations encountered on each of eight days. Results from both studies suggest that these three types of variables account for the bulk, at least 70%, of stress reactivity in daily life. Moreover, all three types of variables emerged as important, as each factor contributed at least 20% of the overall variability in stress reactivity. Interestingly, both studies also found that situation-level variables mattered relatively more than the other two types of variables. I discuss these findings in relation to stress theory, stress-reduction interventions, and methodological innovations.

Depression is a common clinical and subclinical psychiatric disorder in the middle-age to older adult population. This study examined the relationship between depression and activities of daily living (ADLs) in middle-age to older adults. This study examined longitudinal data from the 1998, wave 4, and 2000, wave 5, of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a National Panel Study sponsored by the National Institute on Aging. A negative cross-sectional and longitudinal relationship between higher ADL scores and depression was hypothesized. A goal of the present study was to determine the temporal precedence of these two constructs using a cross-lag panel design to first examine the cross-sectional relationship between ADLs and depression at time-one and at time-two, and then the time-one to time-two longitudinal relationships to examine temporal precedence possible causal relationships. Finally, differences in these correlational relationships by retirement status and then by marital status were tested. There were several interesting findings, including those who were retired in both 1998 and 2000 reported fewer ADLs (i.e., worse functioning), but also reported better health than those who were working in both 1998 and 2000. Similarly, those people who were not married in both 1998 and 2000 reported fewer ADLs but better health than those who were married in both 1998 and 2000. Married individuals reported fewer depressive symptoms than those who were not married.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been relatively unstudied after young adulthood. Yet there are a variety of reasons to expect that EI may be different at mid life than in young adulthood. Normative life experiences may lead to increases in EI, and as the array of different environments and experiences increases with age, one might expect greater individual differences in EI. Similarly, if EI is located somewhere at the intersection of personality and intelligence, as some have speculated, it may follow a course of structural differentiation similar to cognitive abilities. EI may be more closely linked to social variables such as loneliness and friendships at mid life, and its relation to established personality and ability factors such as the Big Five (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) and fluid and crystallized abilities may also vary with age. These hypotheses were investigated in samples of 292 young adults and 246 mid life adults, using the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Inventory, the NEO-Five Factor Personality Inventory, markers of crystallized and fluid ability from Horn's Crystallized/Fluid Sampler, and a variety of other measures. Mid life adults scored higher on overall EI scores, but evidenced no greater range of individual differences than did young adults. A series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed no greater differentiation in the mid life sample either among dimensions of EI or between EI and personality and intelligence variables. Finally, EI appeared equally predictive of social variables in each sample. Results are discussed from the perspective of lifespan and aging literature on emotion, personality, and social functioning. Qualifications for the inference of age-related change in cross sectional designs are considered, along with advantages and disadvantages of factor-analytic and covariance structure modeling methodology. Implications, particularly for psychotherapy with each age group, are discussed.

Afrikaans text / Hierdie studie het ten doel gehad om die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie te gebruik in die identifisering van 'n middeljarekrisis by middeljariges. Met die oog hierop is daar hoofsaaklik op die volgende gekonsentreer: Die middeljare as fenomeen, met spesifieke verwysing na die belewing van krisis­ elemente tydens hierdie lewensfase, wat op 'n middeljarekrisis sou kon dui Die gebruik van die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie as gefundeerde teoretiese vertrekpunt in die identifisering van 'n middeljarekrisis Die daarstel van •n diagnostiese vraelys binne die raamwerk van die Opvoedkundig- Sielkundige Relasieteorie wat in die empiriese studie gebruik is om 'n middeljarekrisis te identifiseer Daar is bevind dat, aJhoewel nie aile middeljariges 'n krisistydperk ervaar nie, daar tien verskillende krisis-elemente is wat op 'n middeljarekrisis sou kon dui. 'n Diagnostiese vraelys is in terme van die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie veroperasionaliseer, en gebruik in die identifisering van 'n middeljarekrisis. / The aim of this study was to use the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory in the identification of a midlife crisis in middle aged persons. The researcher concentrated on the following main aspects: The middle years as phenomenon, with specific reference to the experience of crisis - elements during this life phase, which could lead to a crisis The use of the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory as well-grounded theoretical point of departure in the identification of a midlife crisis The compilation of a diagnostic questionnaireusing the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory as framework, which was used in the empirical study to identify a midlife crisis It was found that, although not all middle aged persons experience a crisis during this time, there are ten different crisis elements which could indicate a midlife crisis. A diagnostic questionnaire was operationalised in terms of the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory, and used in the identification of a midlife crisis. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Voorligting)

Afrikaans text / Hierdie studie het ten doel gehad om die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie te gebruik in die identifisering van 'n middeljarekrisis by middeljariges. Met die oog hierop is daar hoofsaaklik op die volgende gekonsentreer: Die middeljare as fenomeen, met spesifieke verwysing na die belewing van krisis­ elemente tydens hierdie lewensfase, wat op 'n middeljarekrisis sou kon dui Die gebruik van die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie as gefundeerde teoretiese vertrekpunt in die identifisering van 'n middeljarekrisis Die daarstel van •n diagnostiese vraelys binne die raamwerk van die Opvoedkundig- Sielkundige Relasieteorie wat in die empiriese studie gebruik is om 'n middeljarekrisis te identifiseer Daar is bevind dat, aJhoewel nie aile middeljariges 'n krisistydperk ervaar nie, daar tien verskillende krisis-elemente is wat op 'n middeljarekrisis sou kon dui. 'n Diagnostiese vraelys is in terme van die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie veroperasionaliseer, en gebruik in die identifisering van 'n middeljarekrisis. / The aim of this study was to use the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory in the identification of a midlife crisis in middle aged persons. The researcher concentrated on the following main aspects: The middle years as phenomenon, with specific reference to the experience of crisis - elements during this life phase, which could lead to a crisis The use of the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory as well-grounded theoretical point of departure in the identification of a midlife crisis The compilation of a diagnostic questionnaireusing the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory as framework, which was used in the empirical study to identify a midlife crisis It was found that, although not all middle aged persons experience a crisis during this time, there are ten different crisis elements which could indicate a midlife crisis. A diagnostic questionnaire was operationalised in terms of the Edu-Psychological Relation Theory, and used in the identification of a midlife crisis. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Voorligting)