Call number: LD2668 .T4 1986 S56 / Master of Science / Entomology

Formulations of aqueous neem extracts were sprayed in field experiments. Results showed that a 0.5% and 1% concentrations were effective in reducing grasshopper feeding and diminishing damage caused by the millet stemborer, C. ignefusalis. In 1988, neem diminished egg-laying and mine damage by the headminer, H. albipunctella, but no data were available for 1989 because of the low infestation levels of this pest. / Neem exhibited some systemic activity. Soil applied neem kernel powder partially protected millet against K. angulifera and C. ignefusalis. Neem treated plots yielded more grain and suffered less damage by insect pests than four different cultural practices. Only the addition of fertilizer was superior to neem in reducing yield losses but it was inferior in limiting pest losses. / Experiments to test the residual activity of neem showed that this botanical insecticide can effectively protect millet against K. angulifera for at least seven days, and possibly longer if ultra-violet rays and rainfall are not prevalent. Analysis of plant selection behavior of K. angulifera showed that neem is an antifeedant rather than a repellent. On first to third instar nymphs, growth regulating activity expressed as a difficulty in molting or an absence of sclerotization may occur. Topical applications of neem to the stemborer, C. ignefusalis, also caused growth abnormalities, mostly molting disturbances. Treated larvae that reached the adult stage were malformed. / This research indicates that neem based insecticides offer considerable promise for Sahelian farmers for protecting millet crops. It is effective against K. angulifera, but less effective against the stemborer, C. ignefusalis. Although the data obtained for H. albipunctella in 1988 was promising, it was insufficient to reach any conclusions regarding neem's efficacy with respect to this pest.

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Starting from the overall Revitalizing Small Millets in South Asia (RESMISA) project objective and question, how to increase millet production and consumption, I will use the same to enter Chintaguda and understand how that can be accomplished in the village. As millets do not occupy a significant aspect of the lives of people in Chintaguda, I essentially sought to understand the general decision-making logics that operate therein. This objective will help me understand which factors and their interactions influence activities around socio-ecological engagements. I aim to devise a framework to comprehend these logics and the complexities found in Chintaguda by using social theories. These will help me stitch together a narrative for Chintaguda that will contextualize the people’s relationship to millets. This study will show the various ways people can and do relate to millets. / February 2016

The majority of households in the hill regions of Nepal are net consumers of their agricultural produce. The harsh geographical topography, low landholdings and uncertain weather make households in the hills more susceptible to food insecurity. This research examines the role of small millets in achieving food and livelihood security for the people of Dhikur Pokhari VDC in Nepal. As a project based on qualitative research, data was collected through semi-structured interviews, observations and focus group discussions. In addition, market and value chain analysis for small millets was conducted. The findings show that small millets have a significant role in ensuring food security, particularly for the marginalized households. The findings also show that, through their exchange properties, small millets contributed towards generating household livelihoods. Further, findings revealed the existing formal and informal markets for small millets and showed a direct correlation between small millets-based market, and food and livelihood security for the people of Dhikur Pokhari VDC.

The majority of households in the hill regions of Nepal are net consumers of their agricultural produce. The harsh geographical topography, low landholdings and uncertain weather make households in the hills more susceptible to food insecurity. This research examines the role of small millets in achieving food and livelihood security for the people of Dhikur Pokhari VDC in Nepal. As a project based on qualitative research, data was collected through semi-structured interviews, observations and focus group discussions. In addition, market and value chain analysis for small millets was conducted. The findings show that small millets have a significant role in ensuring food security, particularly for the marginalized households. The findings also show that, through their exchange properties, small millets contributed towards generating household livelihoods. Further, findings revealed the existing formal and informal markets for small millets and showed a direct correlation between small millets-based market, and food and livelihood security for the people of Dhikur Pokhari VDC.

Successive droughts, in Zimbabwe compounded by other economic shocks in recent years have resulted in decreased maize productivity amongst the communal farmers most of whom reside in regions IV and V which are considered semi-arid. This has given rise to the need to find alternative food crops, which may be suitable for these areas. Generally, research in the world indicates that sorghum and millet have the potential to end chronic food insecurity in semi-arid areas because of their drought tolerance. Whilst this might be the case, research, government policy and assistance from non-governmental organizations on food crop production in Zimbabwe have shown a continual inclination to maize production in semi-arid areas. However, maize is regarded as a high risk crop in these regions. The main objective of the study was to investigate major factors affecting smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas, from increased production of small grains, specifically sorghum and finger millet. The study was conducted in two rural districts of Masvingo and Gutu, which lie in natural region IV in Masvingo Province. The questionnaire was used as the main tool of inquiry to gather data from households in selected villages within these districts. Questionnaires were administered through face-to-face interviews. The total sample size was 120. The logistic regression model was used to analyze data. The results revealed that, at the 5% level, labour, cattle ownership, farm size, age, extension, yields and access to credit significantly influence sorghum and finger millet production. These findings suggest that an adjustment in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of participation in small grain production. In view of these research findings, a policy shift that encourages increased production of finger millet and sorghum in Zimbabwe‟s semi-arid regions is proposed. It is suggested that this may increase household food security in these regions.

Feeding of animal has become increasingly a big challenge for smallholder farmers in the dry season in most of Sahelian countries. Sheep has an important role in social and economical activity of smallholder farmers. Millet stover (MS) and groundnut haulms (GH) are the main crop residues used. Among concentrates, millet bran (MB) and wheat bran (WB) are mostly used by smallholder farmers in feeding animals. However, these crop residues and concentrates are used inadequately. MS is a poor quality roughage diet, legume residues such as GH and brans are rich in nutritive value. The general objective of this study was to develop a feeding technology transferable to smallholder farmers by supplementing MS with GH, MB and WB to increase the growth performance of sheep during the dry season. The first study evaluated the effect of chopping millet stover (Pennisetum glaucum L. R. Br.) in sheep feeding and the degradability in sacco of feeds. Two Holstein cows were used to determine the degradability in sacco of feeds. The potential dry matter degradability (g/kg) were 846, 809, 730, 410, 550 and 370 for millet bran (MB), wheat bran (WB), groundnut haulms (GH), millet stover, leaves plus sheath and stems of MS respectively. The potential nitrogen degradability (g/kg) of MB, WB and GH were 865, 908 and 817 respectively. The nitrogen content was 7.4, 15.1, 22.0 and 26.2 g/kg for MS, GH, millet bran and wheat bran respectively. The effects of chopping millet stover (MS) on dry matter intake in Oudah bicolor sheep were studied in Maradi, Niger. Four treatments were T0 (unchopped MS), T1 (MS chopped, 50 cm), T2 (MS chopped, 25 cm) and T3 (MS chopped, 10 cm). A randomized block design was applied on 36 sheep, implying 9 sheep per treatment (T0, T1, T2 and T3). The treatment T2 or 25 cm chopping size gave the best MS intake of 560 g/day. The second study evaluated the effects of supplementing millet stover (MS) with groundnut haulms (GH), millet bran (MB) and wheat bran (WB). These supplements can improve the feed value of MS and promote live weight gain of sheep in the dry season. The purpose of this study was to develop a feeding technology transferable to smallholder farmers by supplementing MS. The study was conducted in two successive phases. The phase 1 of 66 days, evaluated the effect of GH, MB and WB supplementations on MS intake and growth performance of sheep, the phase 2 of 14 days, assessed the effect of GH, MB and WB supplementations on intake and digestibility of MS. Six treatments were constituted, namely, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 formed by four levels of GH (0, 200, 400, 600g) and two others (600g GH + 100g MB) and (600g GH + 75 g WB) respectively. A randomized block design was applied on 36 Oudah bicolor sheep, implying 6 male lambs per treatment (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). The GH supplementation levels had a linear effect (P<0.001) on dry matter intake (DMI) of MS, cell wall and nitrogen. Millet stover intake (MSI) decreased significantly with increasing level of GH. However the total dry matter intake (TDMI) significantly increased with GH levels. MB increased (P<0.05) both TDMI, TOMI and nitrogen intake (NI), (P<0.001). WB increased MSI (P<0.05), TDMI and TOMI (P<0.01), NI (P<0.001) and cell wall intakes. GH supplementation had both a linear and quadratic effect on DM digestibility of MS, cell wall and nitrogen digestibility. GH had a linear and significant effect (P<0.001) on live weight gain (LWG) and efficiency. The maximum average daily gain (80.5 g/day) was obtained with treatment 6 followed by the treatment 5 (68 g/day). The animals of treatment 1 received MS stover alone and lost their weight (-19.13 g/day). It is concluded that groundnut haulms, millet bran and wheat bran had good nutritive value whereas millet stover had low nutritive value. The 25 cm chopping size was the one to propose to smallholder farmers. The supplementation of MS as the basal diet with GH and brans enhanced sheep production through improvements in digestibility and intakes of TDM, TOM, cell wall and nitrogen. Key words: Millet stover; groundnut haulms; millet bran; wheat bran, chopping; intake; degradability; growth performance; Oudah bicolor sheep. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

PhD (Food Science) / Department of Food Science and Technology / Finger millet (FM) [Eleusine coracana] is an underutilised cereal grain used as a food source in South Africa. Increased research interest in FM has span over the years owing to its unique nutritional and bioactive composition. Following the recent interest in natural curative substances over their synthetic counterparts in the treatment of food dependent diseases, FM has shown potential nutraceutical effects. Some important health effects like antidiabetic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties have been reported in recent trials with FM. In view of the increasing utilisation and application of FM in the region of Thulamela Municipality, Vhembe District of South Africa, two common indigenous FM varieties (brown and dark brown) were obtained and analysed for their physicochemical properties, levels of minerals, phytic acid, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities. For this process, malted non-alcoholic beverages were produced and analysed for their physicochemical properties, levels of phenolic compounds, and total phenolics and antioxidant activities. FM grains were soaked, germinated and kilned at an interval of 24 h for 96 h, using sorghum as an external reference. Mineral composition of the FM and sorghum samples were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS), and atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). Identification and quantification of phenolic compounds were performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS). All experiments were performed in triplicate except for the UPLC-MS analysis of the malted non-alcoholic beverages that was done in duplicate. Data were analysed by one way analysis of variance, and the mean values were separated by Duncan’s multiple comparison test using SPSS version 24.0. Data showed that the FM varieties were rich in macro- and micro- or trace elements. The macro-elements calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur were found in high amounts ranging from 1597.37 mg/ kg – 6775.03 mg/ kg; iron, zinc, strontium and silicon were found in significant amounts in the range 21.47 mg/ kg – 55.67 iii mg/ kg, copper and boron were found in low amounts (2.2 mg/ kg – 7.7 mg/ kg), along with selenium and cobalt (0.02 mg/ kg – 0.05 mg/ kg). Heavy metals, barium and aluminium were found in the FM varieties. Varietal difference was found to play an important role in the mineral content of the grains during malting. Malting for 24 h reduced mineral content except for sodium. Beyond 48 h of malting, mineral content increased, particularly, for 96 h in FM grain malt. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in the mineral content of FM varieties were noted at 48 h and 96 h of malting. Increase occurred at 72 h of malting for potassium, iron and boron. Malting did not have any effect on the manganese content of the dark brown FM; however, it increased the manganese content at 48 h of malting for brown FM. Malting for 96 h significantly (p < 0.05) reduced sodium content. Consecutive decrease in phytic acid content of the grains was not recorded with durations in malting time. Although statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed, malting did not result in too much change in the physicochemical properties of the grains. Several flavonoids, catechin, epicatechin, quercetin, taxifolin, and hesperitin were isolated, whilst protocatechuic acid was the only phenolic acid detected in the unmalted and malted FM. Increases in catechin, epicatechin and protocatechuic acid were observed for 72 and 96 h malt of brown FM with similar observations recorded for sorghum. Complete loss of taxifolin, catechin, and hesperitin were noted with malting time. FM grains exhibited 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2, 2՛-azinobis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging action and iron reducing activities. Increased iron reducing activity alongside ABTS radical scavenging activity was recorded with malting time. A fermentation-time dependent decrease in the pH of the non-alcoholic beverages, with a corresponding increase in sugar content were recorded. A similar decrease was also recorded for the viscosities of the beverages. The FM malt beverages were found to contain a higher amount of citric acid compared to the sorghum malt beverage. A decrease in the citric acid content with fermentation time was noted in the grain malt beverages fermented with Lactobacillus fermentum, particularly for the iv FM beverage. The phenolic compounds detected in the FM malt beverages fermented with the grain microbial flora and Lactobacillus fermentum were protocatechuic acid, catechin and epicatechin. Taxifolin and kaempferol along with the earlier mentioned compounds were detected in the sorghum malt beverage. Catechin was found in higher amount compared to other phenolic compounds in the FM and sorghum malt beverages. FM malt beverages were found to contain a higher amount of total phenolics compared to the beverage prepared from sorghum malt. Fermentation with the grains’ microbial flora and L. fermentum resulted in reduced total phenolics of FM and sorghum malt beverages, particularly after 24 h of fermentation. A fermentation-time dependent decrease in total phenolics of FM beverages fermented with L. fermentum was noted. Fermentation within 24 - 48 h using the grain microbial flora showed higher total individual phenolic compounds for the dark brown FM and sorghum, compared to other fermentation periods. Fermentation of the beverages for 24 h retained a higher amount of the total phenolics compared to other fermentation periods, especially for the L. fermentum beverages. Reduced total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the beverages were noted at 24 h of fermentation for the two microbial sources. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in total phenolics were observed within 72 – 96 h of fermentation of the brown FM malt beverage with the grains’ microbial flora. Fermentation for 72 h and 96 h with L. fermentum increased the total phenolic content of the brown FM. Increase in total flavonoid content (TFC) of brown FM malt beverage was noted at 72 h fermentation for both microbial sources. Unlike with L. fermentum, no significant (p > 0.05) change in TFC was observed for the dark brown FM beverage after 24 h fermentation with the grains’ microbial flora. Beverages exhibited DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging action and iron reducing activities, which were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced at 96 h fermentation for both microbial sources. The 24 h fermented beverage retained a higher amount of total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and had higher antioxidant activity compared to other fermentation periods for both microbial sources. The study shows that FM is a rich source of essential minerals and v phenolic compounds, and demonstrates that 72 to 96 h of malting has a positive effect on minerals and certain phenolic compounds over the 48 h malting period widely used for preparation of FM malt. The presence of hesperitin in FM grain was established. A new method was developed for the production of FM non-alcoholic beverage with measurable amounts of health-promoting compounds. An ideal fermentation period (24 h) for FM malt non-alcoholic beverage production with enhanced health-promoting compounds, using Lactobacillus fermentum was demonstrated. Fermentation limit (96 h) for production of FM malt beverage using either the grain microbial flora or L. fermentum was confirmed. These findings provide a rationale for increased utilisation of FM as a functional food grain, and its use as malt in production of non-alcoholic beverage for health promotion and wellness. / NRF