The understanding and study of electron transport in semiconductor systems has been the instigation behind the growth of semiconductor electronics industry which has enabled technological developments that are part of our everyday lives. However, most materials exhibit diffusive electron transport where electrons scatter off disorder (impurities, phonons, defects, etc.) inevitably present in the system, and lose their momentum. Advances in material science have led to the discovery of materials which are essentially disorder-free and exhibit exceptionally high mobilities, enabling transport physics beyond diffusive transport. In this work, we explore non-diffusive transport regimes, namely, the ballistic and hydrodynamic regimes in a high-mobility two-dimensional electron system in a GaAs quantum well in a GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure. The hydrodynamic regime exhibits collective fluid-like behavior of electrons which leads to the formation of current vortices, attributable to the dominance of electron-electron interactions in this regime. The ballistic regime occurs at low temperatures, where electron-electron interactions are weak, constraining the electrons to scatter predominantly against the device boundaries. To study these non-diffusive regimes, we fabricate mesoscopic devices with multiple point contacts on the heterostructure, and perform variable-temperature (4.1 K to 40 K) zero-field nonlocal resistance measurements at various locations in the device to map the movement of electrons. The experiments, along with interpretation using kinetic simulations, demarcate hydrodynamic and ballistic regimes and establish the dominant role of electron-electron interactions in the hydrodynamic regime. To further understand the role of electron-electron interactions, we perform nonlocal resistance measurements in the presence of magnetic field in transverse magnetic focusing geometries under variable temperature (0.39 K to 36 K). Using our experimental results and insights from the kinetic simulations, we quantify electron-electron scattering length, while also highlighting the importance of electron-electron interactions even in ballistic transport. At a more fundamental level, we reveal the presence of current vortices in both hydrodynamic and surprisingly, ballistic regimes both in the presence and absence of magnetic field. We demonstrate that even the ballistic regime can manifest negative nonlocal resistances which should not be considered as the hallmark signature of hydrodynamic regime. The work sheds a new light on both hydrodynamic and ballistic transport in high-mobility solid-state systems, highlighting the similarities between these non-diffusive regimes and at the same time providing a way of effectively demarcating them using innovative device design, measurement schemes and one-to-one modeling. The similarities stem from total electron system momentum conservation in both the hydrodynamic and ballistic regimes. The work also presents a sensitive and precise experimental technique for measuring electron-electron scattering length, which is a fundamental quantity in solid-state physics. / Doctor of Philosophy / Electrons are the charged particles that are bound around the nuclei of atoms. But sometimes in a solid material electrons break free away from the nuclei and wander around. They are then the carriers of electric current ubiquitous in our daily lives as in our homes, and in our electronic devices such as smartphones and computers. Often an analogy is made between the flow of electric current in a material and the flow of water in a stream. However, the analogy does not hold well for most materials. In most materials the motion of electrons can be thought of as balls in a pinball machine - their movement hindered and randomized by collisions with the countless defects and impurities present in the material they travel through. However, recently scientists have been able to synthesize ultraclean materials, where electrons can indeed mimic the flow of water under the right conditions. In this aptly-named hydrodynamic regime, electrons predominantly interact with each other and that leads to the formation of current whirlpools or vortices similar to those forming in water. A telling signature of this regime is a negative electrical resistance appearing near the location of the vortex. When the interactions between electrons are weak, such as at very low temperatures, electrons move along straight-line trajectories until they hit and bounce off the device edges, similar to billiard balls. This low-temperature phenomenon is called ballistic transport. In this work we reveal that measurement of negative resistance and formation of current vortices are not unique to the hydrodynamic regime but can occur in the ballistic regime as well. It is indeed counterintuitive that electrons moving like billiards balls can behave similarly to electrons flowing like water. The similarities can be traced back to a fundamental physics conservation law active in both situations, namely momentum conservation. To experimentally realize the tests, we use a very high purity semiconductor material GaAs/AlGaAs and fabricate tiny devices on the material with a cutting-edge design, capable of precisely measuring resistance at various locations along the device to map the movement of electrons. The simulations of the novel physics indeed reveal current vortices of various sizes in the ballistic regime, in agreement with the experimental data showing negative resistance. In another experiment, we apply a magnetic field, making the electrons move in circular paths. If uninterrupted, electrons complete half circles and are collected through an opening in the device, giving resistance peaks in experiments. Due to electron-electron interactions, the electrons on their circular trajectory are interrupted by other electrons which leads to a decay in resistance peaks. This decay is utilized to measure the strength of electron-electron interactions. The work has both fundamental and applied implications. The existence of whirlpools shows that the electron momentum is not lost by collisions, and that in turn means that the conduction of electrical current in these regimes is inherently efficient. This opens up avenues for electronic devices which are faster, more functional and more power efficient than present electronic devices.

The thesis aims to explore future mobility system alternatives in the context of “winter cities” to achieve a more sustainable society. This is done by interviewing a broad range of mobility experts - encompassing those focused on cities in the northern regions and those with global expertise. The result highlights what (social and technological) innovations are believed to transform winter city mobility and what factors can play a key role in successful transformations. The relevance of the findings is illustrated with examples of their contextualization for the case of Skellefteå municipality, located in Sweden. / Studien syftar till att utforska framtida mobilitetssystemalternativ i sammanhanget "vinterstäder" för att uppnå ett mer hållbart samhälle. Detta görs genom att intervjua en rad olika mobilitetsexperter – som besitter erfarenhet och kunskap från städer lokaliserade i de norra regionerna samt de med global expertis. Resultatet belyser vilka (sociala och tekniska) innovationer som tros förändra vinterstadens mobilitet och vilka faktorer som kan spela en nyckelroll i en framgångsrik transformation. Studiens relevans påvisas genom att resultat illustreras med exempel på dess kontextualisering i caset Skellefteå kommun.