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Although the effects of witnessing domestic violence on young children were long believed to be non-existent, current research indicates that young children do suffer negative consequences as a result of witnessing violence (e.g., Zeanah, et al., 1999). From research with older children it is known that exposure to violence is associated with emotional dysregulation, behaviour problems, and difficulties in school (e.g., Wolfe et al., 2003). Risk factors (e.g., maternal depression) and protective factors (e.g., secure attachment relationship) have been implicated in both emotional regulatory abilities and the effects of exposure to domestic violence. <p>The present research endeavoured to use a developmental psychopathology perspective to understand the experiences of young children exposed to domestic violence, specifically their emotion regulation abilities and behaviour problems. Study 1 explored the application and reliability of an emotion regulation coding scheme for use with young children during the Face-to-Face Still Face scenario. Study 2 examined the relationship between previous exposure to domestic violence and behaviour problems and emotion regulation, while considering possible moderating variables. The coding system from Study 1 served as the measure of emotion regulation in Study 2. Findings indicated that young children in this study who had been exposed to increased levels of domestic violence also displayed increased internalizing behaviour problems. No relationship was found between exposure to domestic violence and emotion regulation or externalizing problems or sleep problems. Child temperament, attachment security and maternal psychological symptomology were associated with behaviour problems in these children. Maternal psychological symptomology was marginally related to emotion regulation, however temperament and attachment security were not. The relationship between exposure to physical aggression and externalizing behaviour problems was moderated by child temperament and attachment security. The relationship between physical aggression and internalizing behaviour problems was moderated by attachment security. The implications of these findings for future research and clinical practice are discussed. Taken together, these two studies expanded the existing literature on the adjustment outcomes associated with exposure to domestic violence in young children.

Although the effects of witnessing domestic violence on young children were long believed to be non-existent, current research indicates that young children do suffer negative consequences as a result of witnessing violence (e.g., Zeanah, et al., 1999). From research with older children it is known that exposure to violence is associated with emotional dysregulation, behaviour problems, and difficulties in school (e.g., Wolfe et al., 2003). Risk factors (e.g., maternal depression) and protective factors (e.g., secure attachment relationship) have been implicated in both emotional regulatory abilities and the effects of exposure to domestic violence. <p>The present research endeavoured to use a developmental psychopathology perspective to understand the experiences of young children exposed to domestic violence, specifically their emotion regulation abilities and behaviour problems. Study 1 explored the application and reliability of an emotion regulation coding scheme for use with young children during the Face-to-Face Still Face scenario. Study 2 examined the relationship between previous exposure to domestic violence and behaviour problems and emotion regulation, while considering possible moderating variables. The coding system from Study 1 served as the measure of emotion regulation in Study 2. Findings indicated that young children in this study who had been exposed to increased levels of domestic violence also displayed increased internalizing behaviour problems. No relationship was found between exposure to domestic violence and emotion regulation or externalizing problems or sleep problems. Child temperament, attachment security and maternal psychological symptomology were associated with behaviour problems in these children. Maternal psychological symptomology was marginally related to emotion regulation, however temperament and attachment security were not. The relationship between exposure to physical aggression and externalizing behaviour problems was moderated by child temperament and attachment security. The relationship between physical aggression and internalizing behaviour problems was moderated by attachment security. The implications of these findings for future research and clinical practice are discussed. Taken together, these two studies expanded the existing literature on the adjustment outcomes associated with exposure to domestic violence in young children.

Self-talk, its relationship to performance, and responses to feedback were investigated in European Americans (Eu.A.s; n = 66), newly-arrived East Asians (E.A.s; n = 24), later-arrived E.A.s (n = 44), and Latinos (n = 35). Later-arrived E.A.s had a larger proportion of negative to positive self-talk than Eu.A.s. Regardless of cultural background, a greater proportion of negative self-talk related to poorer performance. All cultural groups perceived the task as more valid after receiving positive vs. negative feedback. Results did not replicate work by Peters and Williams (in press), questioning their concern regarding the use of cognitive interventions with E.A.s. Results suggest that E.A. and Latino groups are not homogenous, findings should not be generalized from one collectivist cultural background to another, negative self-talk can act as an indicator for fear of failure in Latinos, and acculturation in E.A.s influences fear of failure.

The present study pursued two objectives in the context of a randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy with parent (CBT/P) and group (GCBT) involvement. The first objective was to examine the variability in treatment outcome. There were three specific aims within the first objective, to evaluate: (1) youth characteristics (age, depressive, and externalizing disorders) as moderators of treatment outcome; (2) the differential outcome of the treatment approaches as a function of youth characteristics; and (3) the relative efficacy of the treatment approaches at each level of the moderators. The second objective was to evaluate the efficacy of anxiety treatments along secondary depressive symptoms and externalizing behaviors. There were five specific aims within the second objective, to evaluate: (1) whether anxiety treatment yields reductions in secondary problems, (2) the efficacy of anxiety treatments in reducing secondary problems as a function of approach and youth characteristics, (3) whether reductions in anxiety symptoms significantly mediate changes in secondary problems, (4) the directionality of change in the hypothesized mediated relations, and (5) whether the hypothesized mediated relations are moderated by treatment approach and youth characteristics. The specific aims were pursued using data collected from 183 youth and their mothers. Research questions were tested using multiple regressions and structural equation modeling. Age, depressive, and externalizing disorders were significant moderators. CBT/P relative to GCBT lowered anxiety more for younger than older youth. GCBT relative to CBT/P lowered anxiety more for older than younger youth. GCBT relative to CBT/P lowered anxiety more for depressed youth than non-depressed youth. GCBT relative to CBT/P lowered anxiety less for externalizing youth than non-externalizing youth. Treatment reduced depressive symptoms and externalizing problem behaviors. Reductions in anxiety mediated changes in depressive symptoms and externalizing problem behaviors. Reversed directionality was found in the relation between social anxiety and depressive symptoms. In CBT/P the direction of change was from depressive to social anxiety. The opposite was true in GCBT. Reductions in social anxiety mediated posttreatment changes in depressive symptoms in GCBT but not CBT/P. The reverse was true at follow-up. Reductions in social anxiety mediated changes in depressive symptoms for girls but not boys.

Researchers have failed to specify when crime and counter-normative actions, as opposed to other responses may occur as a consequence of relative deprivation. To clarify this issue, a mediational model was developed that specified the causal processes leading from the recognition of deprivation to crime and counter-normative actions. This model hypothesizes that the recognition of deprivation (cognitive relative deprivation) leads to feelings associated with this recognition (affective relative deprivation) which in turn leads to crime and counter-normative actions. This model applies to both personal and group deprivation. In both cases, the feelings associated with deprivation include anger, resentment, dissatisfaction, and discontent. Data from a sample of 950 males between the ages of 16 to 30 supported the mediational model. Moderator variables were hypothesized to influence the causal processes in the mediational model, and were thus employed to specify the conditions under which the recognition of deprivation became more likely to lead to intense emotional reactions, and the conditions under which these emotional reactions became more likely to lead to crime and counter-normative actions. Personal deprivation was found to lead to stronger emotional responses if persons were pessimistic about their deprivation being relieved in the future, while at the group level, higher levels of optimism were related to stronger emotional responses. Both types of deprivation also lead to stronger emotional responses when persons believe that financial success and wealth are important. The emotive responses for both personal and group deprivation, in turn, were more likely to lead to crime and counter-normative actions if deprived persons had criminal peers. It was also found that the recognition of personal deprivation was more likely to lead to depression and lower self-esteem if people blamed themselves for their deprivation than if they did not. Persons who were not optimistic that their deprivation would be relieved in the future were more depressed than persons who were optimistic. Persons whose in-group was deprived were more likely to have lower self-esteem if they blamed the in-group for its deprivation than if they did not.

published_or_final_version / Physics / Master / Master of Philosophy

Researchers have failed to specify when crime and counter-normative actions, as opposed to other responses may occur as a consequence of relative deprivation. To clarify this issue, a mediational model was developed that specified the causal processes leading from the recognition of deprivation to crime and counter-normative actions. This model hypothesizes that the recognition of deprivation (cognitive relative deprivation) leads to feelings associated with this recognition (affective relative deprivation) which in turn leads to crime and counter-normative actions. This model applies to both personal and group deprivation. In both cases, the feelings associated with deprivation include anger, resentment, dissatisfaction, and discontent. Data from a sample of 950 males between the ages of 16 to 30 supported the mediational model. Moderator variables were hypothesized to influence the causal processes in the mediational model, and were thus employed to specify the conditions under which the recognition of deprivation became more likely to lead to intense emotional reactions, and the conditions under which these emotional reactions became more likely to lead to crime and counter-normative actions. Personal deprivation was found to lead to stronger emotional responses if persons were pessimistic about their deprivation being relieved in the future, while at the group level, higher levels of optimism were related to stronger emotional responses. Both types of deprivation also lead to stronger emotional responses when persons believe that financial success and wealth are important. The emotive responses for both personal and group deprivation, in turn, were more likely to lead to crime and counter-normative actions if deprived persons had criminal peers. It was also found that the recognition of personal deprivation was more likely to lead to depression and lower self-esteem if people blamed themselves for their deprivation than if they did not. Persons who were not optimistic that their deprivation would be relieved in the future were more depressed than persons who were optimistic. Persons whose in-group was deprived were more likely to have lower self-esteem if they blamed the in-group for its deprivation than if they did not.

Communication is one team process factor that has received considerable research attention in the team literature. This literature provides equivocal evidence regarding the role of communication in team performance and yet, does not provide any evidence for when communication becomes important for team performance. This research program sought to address this evidence gap by a) testing task complexity and team member diversity (race diversity, gender diversity and work value diversity) as moderators of the team communication — performance relationship; and b) testing a team communication — performance model using established teams across two different task types. The functional perspective was used as the theoretical framework for operationalizing team communication activity. The research program utilised a quasi-experimental research design with participants from a large multi-national information technology company whose Head Office was based in Sydney, Australia. Participants voluntarily completed two team building exercises (a decision making and production task), and completed two online questionnaires. In total, data were collected from 1039 individuals who constituted 203 work teams. Analysis of the data revealed a small number of significant moderation effects, not all in the expected direction. However, an interesting and unexpected finding also emerged from Study One. Large and significant correlations between communication activity ratings were found across tasks, but not within tasks. This finding suggested that teams were displaying very similar profiles of communication on each task, despite the tasks having different communication requirements. Given this finding, Study Two sought to a) determine the relative importance of task versus team effects in explaining variance in team communication measures for established teams; b) determine if established teams had reliable and discernable team communication profiles and if so, c) investigate whether team communication profiles related to task performance. Multi-level modeling and repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that task type did not have an effect on team communication ratings. However, teams accounted for 24% of the total variance in communication measures. Through cluster analysis, five reliable and distinct team communication profiles were identified. Consistent with the findings of the multi-level analysis and repeated measures ANOVA, teams’ profiles were virtually identical across the decision making and production tasks. A relationship between communication profile and performance was identified for the production task, although not for the decision making task. This research responds to calls in the literature for a better understanding of when communication becomes important for team performance. The moderators tested in this research were not found to have a substantive or reliable effect on the relationship between communication and performance. However, the consistency in team communication activity suggests that established teams can be characterized by their communication profiles and further, that these communication profiles may have implications for team performance. The findings of this research provide theoretical support for the functional perspective in terms of the communication – performance relationship and further support the team development literature as an explanation for the stability in team communication profiles. This research can also assist organizations to better understand the specific types of communication activity and profiles of communication that could offer teams a performance advantage.