A study was conducted to investigate mental health professionals' experience of change in three NHS Trusts in England. The aim was to understand the professionals' experience of change, applying the psychological contract as a sense-making tool using an extended contract model (Guest, 1998; George, 2009). The concept of the psychological contract was first introduced within psychoanalysis (Menninger, 1958) to explain the relationship between client and therapist. The psychological contract has evolved over the years to be applied in occupational settings to explain social exchanges between employees and the organisation (George, 2009). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 mental health professionals from community NHS teams, with one participant from an inpatient ward. A hybrid thematic analysis using inductive and deductive coding was applied to capture both the theoretical framework of the psychological contract and the subjective experiences of the participants. Results revealed that the psychological contract could serve as both a cognitive and emotional sense-making tool of change for participants. Findings also revealed the influence of contextual political and social factors around change in the NHS. Novel findings included mediators in the change process such as participants feeling supported to negotiate psychological contracts and upholding personal and team values. The findings are discussed in terms of clinical implications for managing professionals' experience of change in the NHS.

Thesis (MPhil (Sociology and Social Anthropology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study examines the implementation of an intervention aimed at stopping alcohol consumption during pregnancy in order to decrease Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and how this affected changes in alcohol consumption. FASD is a growing concern in South Africa where the prevalence rate is almost 12/100 at some schools in the Western Cape; the highest reported FASD rate in the world. FASD is caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy and it is an irreversible mental and physical disability in children. FASD is preventable through abstinence from alcohol consumption during pregnancy. The intervention study (referred to as the Ceres Intervention Study), utilised a cluster-randomised trial design, with a control and intervention group, where the control arm of the study received basic screening and information on FASD, while the intervention arm of the study received a more comprehensive intervention, consisting of a variety of screening and counselling techniques. The study took place during 2007/2008 in the Witzenberg sub-district in Ceres in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The Study used research techniques combined with therapeutic methods and techniques to mediate behaviour change in pregnant women. From the Ceres Intervention Study it was found that 60% of pregnant women changed their drinking behaviour, which led to questions around how this behaviour change took place. The main aim of this study therefore is to examine how pregnant women changed their drinking behaviour during this intervention and also what facilitated the change that was observed. In order to examine the behaviour change, data from the intervention arm and control arm of the study was analysed and a profile of the women was developed. A focus on the intervention arm of the study resulted in distinguishing further between two sub-groups within the intervention arm, namely, the change and no-change groups. Mainly quantitative data was obtained with the use of various tools, however from the comments and experiences of participants, qualitative data could be used as complementary to quantitative data to provide more clarity as to how behaviour change was facilitated in the study. Results from the study suggest that there is a dialectical interplay between client and counsellor which facilitate generative mechanisms that may lead to behaviour change. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie lig die implementering van 'n intervensie toe met die doel om die gebruik van alkohol gedurende swangerskap te stop teneinde Fetale Alkohol Spektrum Afwyking (FASD) te verminder en die gepaardgaande gedragsverandering by swanger vroue te ondersoek. FASD is 'n groeiende probleem in Suid-Afrika waar die voorkoms van FASD by 12/100 kinders by sommige skole in die Weskaap gerapporteer is. FASD word veroorsaak deur alkohol-gebruik tydens swangerskap en kan permanente verstandelike en fisiese gestremdheid by kinders veroorsaak. FASD kan voorkom word deur geen alkohol tydens swangerskap te gebruik nie. Die intervensie (of die Ceres Intervensie-studie) maak gebruik van 'n kliniese ontwerp met 'n kontrole en 'n intervensie groep, waar die kontrole arm van die studie basiese assessering asook inligting oor FASD ontvang het, terwyl die intervensie arm 'n meer omvattende intervensie bestaande uit 'n verskeidenheid assesserings sessies en beradingstegnieke ontvang het. Die studie is gedurende 2007/2008 in die Witzenberg sub-distrik in Ceres in die Weskaap, Suid-Afrika, geïmplementeer. Die studie maak gebruik van navorsingstegnieke gekombineer met wetenskaplik gebaseerde intervensie metodes en tegnieke om gedragsverandering by swanger vroue te onderhandel. In die Ceres Intervensie-studie is bevind dat 60% van die swanger vroue hul alkohol-gebruik gedrag verander het. Dit het aanleiding gegee tot vrae rondom hoe hierdie gedragsverandering plaasgevind het. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie is dus om te kyk na hoe swanger vroue hul alkohol-gebruik verander het gedurende die intervensie asook wat hierdie verandering in gedrag moontlik gemaak het. Om hierdie gedragsverandering te ondersoek is data van die intervensie arm en kontrole arm ontleed en is 'n profiel van die vroue saamgestel. Die fokus op die intervensie arm van die studie het aanleiding gegee tot die verdere onderskeiding tussen twee sub-groepe binne die intervensie arm, naamlik, die groep wat verander het en die groep wat nie verander het nie. Kwantitatiewe data is hoofsaaklik ingesamel, alhoewel kwalitatiewe data wat verkry is uit opmerkings en ondervindings van deelnemers as aanvullende inligting tot die kwantitatiewe data gebruik is teneinde die gedragsverandering wat plaasgevind het toe te lig. Bevindinge uit die studie dui op 'n dialektiese verhouding tussen klient en berader wat skeppende meganismes teweeg bring en sodoende moontlike gedragsverandering bevorder.

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As a business becomes dependent on knowledge and intellectual capabilities, human resource management is undoubtedly a key driver of an organization’s success. In the same vein, the importance of managing human resources for the multinational enterprise (MNE) cannot be overstated (Dowling, 1999; Hiltrop, 1999; Tung, 1984). Since a large number of MNEs depend on expatriates to run their global operations despite their relatively high costs, it is essential for MNEs to develop a better understanding of expatriate management. In this regard, the psychological contract has received recent attention as an underlying mechanism for managing expatriates. However, existing psychological contract studies have paid little heed to the unique contexts of expatriate employment relationships (Ng & Feldman, 2009; Lub, Bal, Blomme, & Schalk, 2016), which are different from domestic employment relationships. Expatriates are often exposed to more complex environments than their domestic counterparts, such as different cultures. Moreover, expatriate contracts usually involve multiple parties and are directed by various interests (Kraimer & Wayne, 2004; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). Therefore, the current understanding of psychological contracts in the expatriation context is not well understood. This could potentially hinder the ability to manage expatriates on international assignments. Using social exchange theory and equity theory, this dissertation seeks to explore expatriates’ psychological contracts in the multi-contextual nature of expatriation. More particularly, this dissertation aims to examine the effects of psychological contract violations on attitudinal outcomes in the expatriation context and also discover potential moderators of that relationship at the individual, organizational, and national levels. Using an expatriate sample, this dissertation employs two questionnaires within a two-week interval. The findings of this dissertation contribute to a clearer understanding of expatriate management by answering essential questions of what impact perceived psychological contract violations have on expatriate attitudes and how individual, organizational, and national factors influence the effects of perceived psychological contract violations.

<p>Battletank crew must perform many diverse tasks during a normal mission: Crewmembers have to navigate, communicate, control on-board systems, and engage with the enemy, to mention a few. As human processing capacity is limited, the crewmembers will find themselves in situations where task requirements, due to the number of tasks and task complexity, exceed their mental capacity. The stress that results from mental overload has documented quantitative and qualitative effects on performance; effects that could lead to mission failure. </p><p>This thesis describes a simulation of tankcrew during a mission where mental workload is a key factor to the outcome of mission performance. The thesis work has given rise to a number of results. First, conceptual models have been developed of the tank crewmembers. Mental workload is represented in these models as a behavior moderator, which can be manipulated to demonstrate and predict behavioral effects. Second, cognitive models of the tank crewmembers are implemented as Soar agents, which interact with tanks in a 3D simulated battlefield. The empirical data underlying these models was collected from experiments with tankcrew, and involved first hand observations and task analyses. Afterwards, the model’s behavior was verified against an a priori established behavioral pattern and successfully face validated with two subject matter experts.</p>

Il presente programma di ricerca si è proposto di valutare l’utilizzo di un intervento di scrittura su una popolazione di soggetti adolescenti iscritti al primo anno di scuola superiore. Ciò nei termini di risultati (effetti a breve e lungo termine), mediatori e moderatori. Tali questioni sono state esplorate nell’ambito di due diversi progetti. Il primo progetto si è esplicato in uno studio sperimentale sull’efficacia di un intervento di Expressive Writing [EW] standard rispetto ad un compito di scrittura focalizzato sugli aspetti positivi di un evento (Benefit Finding [BF]) e ad un gruppo di controllo che scriveva su temi superficiali (Trivial [TR]). Le analisi quantitative sono state effettuate all’interno di due studi finalizzati a testare gli effetti della modificazione delle consegne di scrittura e gli effetti di mediazione del linguaggio sui risultati dell’intervento (Studio 1), nonché gli effetti di moderazione di ottimismo, supporto familiare e relazioni interpersonali (Studio 2). Questi studi hanno fornito supporto alla letteratura di ricerca che ha messo in luce gli effetti positivi della scrittura tra gli adolescenti, rivelando risultati migliori per il gruppo BF. Il secondo progetto ha implicato uno studio naturalistico condotto in una scuola superiore del Nord Italia due settimane dopo la morte di uno studente, avvenuta durante le lezioni. In particolare è stato esaminato il processo della scrittura, considerando i cambiamenti linguistici in funzione di variabili legate al trattamento (le tre sessioni di scrittura) e ai partecipanti (l’ottimismo e le traiettorie individuali di adattamento). / The current research program aimed to evaluate the use of a writing intervention on an adolescent population transitioning from middle school to high school in terms of outcomes (short and long term effects), mediating mechanisms, and moderators. These issues have been investigated within two different projects. The first project implied a longitudinal, randomized, controlled trial on the efficacy of a standard Expressive Writing [EW] intervention relative to a writing assignment focused on positive aspects of an event (Benefit Finding [BF]) and a control group writing on neutral topics (Trivial [TR]). Quantitative analyses were performed within two studies aimed to test the effects of altering writing assignments and the mediating effects of language on writing outcomes (Study 1), and the moderating effects of optimism, family support, and interpersonal relationships (Study 2). These studies provided support to research literature showing positive effects of writing among adolescents, revealing greater outcomes for the BF group. The second project implied a small, naturalistic study conducted in a high school of Northern Italy two weeks after a student died during classes (Study 3). The process of writing was examined, considering linguistic changes in writing as a function of treatment variables (the three writing sessions) and participant variables (optimism and individuals’ adjustment trajectories).

On an everyday basis, employees may be subjected to low intensity negative behaviours from those they work with. Uncivil behaviours may cumulatively add up over time to have detrimental effects on employees’ wellbeing and commitment to stay with their organisation. Since most of the research has been cross-sectional, capturing a snapshot in time, knowledge regarding the day-to-day effects of experiencing workplace incivility is limited The broad aim of the present research was to develop a new data collection tool in the form of a digital diary Smartphone app, to explore these day-to-day effects, measuring face-to-face and online workplace incivility. Three studies were conducted to develop and test the app. The first pilot study sought to test the proposed measures for use in the app. In particular, the commonly used Workplace Incivility Scale (WIS) was adapted to apply to online as well as face-to-face interactions. Statistical analysis of this pilot confirmed that both the face-to-face and online versions of the WIS were reliable and valid, and determined that experiencing workplace incivility via both modes was significantly associated with emotional exhaustion, and intentions to quit. On the basis of the first pilot, the app was developed and its feasibility tested in a second pilot focusing on the usability of the new app, which resulted in minor design changes being implemented prior to the final launch. The main research study sought to validate the new app and test a series of hypotheses about the day-to-day effects of workplace incivility. Participants completed an initial web-based survey and were then instructed to complete the questions on the app for one month. Multilevel analyses revealed that employees experienced higher levels of emotional exhaustion, and intention to quit on days when they were exposed to face-to-face or online incivility. The amount of incivility that participants experience on a day-to-day basis (Level 1) predicts emotional exhaustion, and intention to quit on a daily basis, and the average amount of incivility (Level 2) that participants experience also predicts their emotional exhaustion, and intention to quit when not considering other factors. Anger and fear were found to mediate the relationship between both forms of incivility and intention to quit. For the rumination-mediated models, the relationship between both forms of workplace incivility and emotional exhaustion is significantly mediated by rumination. Theoretically, this research contributes by providing insight into workplace incivility and its effects on a daily basis. Methodologically, this research advances the field by providing a new reliable and valid repeated measures data collection tool that other researchers may share to overcome and build upon the limitations inherent in cross-sectional studies.

Battletank crew must perform many diverse tasks during a normal mission: Crewmembers have to navigate, communicate, control on-board systems, and engage with the enemy, to mention a few. As human processing capacity is limited, the crewmembers will find themselves in situations where task requirements, due to the number of tasks and task complexity, exceed their mental capacity. The stress that results from mental overload has documented quantitative and qualitative effects on performance; effects that could lead to mission failure. This thesis describes a simulation of tankcrew during a mission where mental workload is a key factor to the outcome of mission performance. The thesis work has given rise to a number of results. First, conceptual models have been developed of the tank crewmembers. Mental workload is represented in these models as a behavior moderator, which can be manipulated to demonstrate and predict behavioral effects. Second, cognitive models of the tank crewmembers are implemented as Soar agents, which interact with tanks in a 3D simulated battlefield. The empirical data underlying these models was collected from experiments with tankcrew, and involved first hand observations and task analyses. Afterwards, the model’s behavior was verified against an a priori established behavioral pattern and successfully face validated with two subject matter experts.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether Psychological Well-Being (comprised of self-esteem, optimism, satisfaction with life, and self-determination), perfectionism, body surveillance, and neuroticism moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms after controlling for social desirability and actual physical size. 847 female undergraduate students participated in the study. Participants completed an online questionnaire packet. An exploratory factor analysis determined that self-determination, optimism, self-esteem, and satisfaction with life loaded on to one factor representing Psychological Well-Being. Hierarchical moderated regression (HMR) was used to control for the influences of social desirability and body mass index on bulimic symptoms and then determine the main and interactive effects of body dissatisfaction and each moderator. Four variables (neuroticism, body surveillance, concern over mistakes, and doubts about actions) strengthened the relationship between body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptomatology, whereas Psychological Well-Being weakened the relationship. Parental expectations, parental criticism, and personal standards did not moderate the relationship between body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptomatology.

Background: Per definition, traumatic events include exposures to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. Exposure to traumatic events is associated with persistent alterations in biological and psychological processes that are involved in the etiology of mental disorders. In fact, traumatic events are associated with a higher risk for various mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders, but also with treatment resistance. Thus, it is crucial to develop early interventions to prevent these adverse trauma-related outcomes. However, existing pharmacological and psychological early intervenions only have a limited efficacy so far. A major reason is that only a minority of trauma-exposed individuals actually develops adverse consequences making universally applied interventions ineffective. Thus, it is crucial to identify moderators of adverse responses to trauma exposure. Aims: This thesis aimed at (1) providing estimates on the prevelance of traumatic event exposure and trauma-related mental disorders for the general population and high-risk populations and (2) investigating moderators of adverse mental health consequences following traumatic event exposure. The following potential moderators were investigated: (i) the susceptibility to others‘ emotions, (ii) childhood traumas, (iii) biological stress markers and (iv) a specific genetic polymorphism involved in the degradation of monoamines (i.e. MAOA gene). These investigations were conducted with respect to differenct outcomes relevant in the processing of traumatic events including the initial affective and biological reaction, mental disorder symptoms (focusing on PTSD and alcohol use symptoms) and treatment response. Methods: To answer the research questions, different methods and designs were applied. First, epidemiological data from a national study program in German soldiers deployed to Afghanistan were used. These data included diagnostic interview data as well as biological markers. Second, an experimental study with a randomized trauma analogue design was used to investigate moderators of acute trauma responses. Third, a genetic moderator of trauma effects on treatment response was investigated using data from a multi-center trial of exposure-based cognitive behavioral therapy of panic and agoraphobia patients. Main results: Only a small minority of trauma-exposed individuals develops mental disorders. This also applies to populations with a high risk for multiple and/or severe trauma exposure. The investigations of potential moderators suggeted that individuals with a higher susceptibility to negative emotions of others show a higher stress reactivity after trauma exposure. Males with childhood traumas show a higher increase in alcohol craving after trauma exposure. Moreover, individuals with lower basal cortisol levels have a higher risk of increased PTSD symptoms and alcohol use following trauma exposure. Finally, a subgroup of traumatized female panic disorder patients with the low-active variant of the MAOA gene benefits less from exposure-based psychotherapy. Conclusions: These findings suggest novel targets for moderating factors and show the relevance of previously discovered moderators in novel contexts. Some of the identified moderators represent promising targets for risk markers before or in the direct aftermath of traumatic event exposure. Further research is needed to comfirm the suggested moderators and to investigate the exact mechanisms involved. Moreover, future studies should aim at integrating findings on different moderators and translate them into effective risk assessments and targeted early interventions. / Hintergrund: Traumatische Ereignisse sind definiert als Konfrontation mit tatsächlichem oder droghenden Tod, ernsthafter Verletzung oder sexueller Gewalt. Das Erleben traumatischer Ereignisse ist mit andauernder Veränderungen in biologischen und psychischen Prozesssen assoziiert, welche eine bedeutende Rolle in der Ätiologie psychischer Störungen spielen. Tatsächlich sind traumatische Ereignisse mit einem höheren Risiko für zahlreiche psychische Störungen assoziiert, darunter vor allem die Posttraumatische Belastungsstörung (PTBS) und Substanzstörungen. Zudem zeigen Personen mit traumatischen Erfahrungen häufiger ein schlechteres Ansprechen auf Behandlungen. Die Entwicklung möglichst früher Inteventionen zur Vermeidung dieser Traumafolgen ist somit von großer Bedeutung. Allerdings sind bestehende frühe Interventionen nach traumatischen Eriegnissen bislang nur sehr begrenzt effektiv. Ein wesentlicher Grund hierfür besteht darin, dass überhaupt nur ein kleiner Anteil von traumatisierten Personen negative Folgen entwickelt. Es ist demnach entscheidend, solche Faktoren zu identifizieren, die das Risiko negativer Folgen nach traumatischen Ereignissen moderieren. Ziele: (1) Darstellung der Prävalenz von traumatischen Ereignissen und trauma-bezogenen psychischen Störungen für die Allgemeinbevölkerung und für spezifische Risikopopulationen, sowie (2) die Untersuchung von Moderatoren negativer Traumafolgen, wobei folgende potenzielle Moderatoren untersucht wurden: (i) die Ansteckbarkeit für die Emotionen anderer, (ii) Kindheitstraumata, (iii) biologische Stressmarker und (iv) ein genetischer Polymorphismus, der beim Abbau von Monoaminen involviert ist (MAOA Gen). Diese Moderatoren wurden in Bezug auf unterschiedliche Outcomes untersucht, welche Aspekte der Verarbeitung traumatischer Ereignisse darstellen: die unmittelbare emotionale und biologische Reaktion, Symptome psychischer Störungen (mit Fokus auf PTBS und Alkoholkonsum) sowie das Ansprechen auf Behandlung. Methoden: Zur Beantwortung der Fragestellungen wurden verschiedene Methoden und Studiendesigns genutzt. Diese beinhalteten zum einen epidemiologische Daten eines bundesweiten Studienprogramms bei deutschen Soldaten mit Militäreinsatz in Afghanistan. Diese Daten umfassten diagnostische Interviews sowie biologische Stressmarker. Weiterhin wurde eine experimentelle randomisierte Analogstudie durchgeführt, um Moderatoren von initialen Traumareaktionen zu identifizieren. Schließlich wurden Daten einer Multi-Center Therapiestudie bei Patienten mit Paniskstörung und Agoraphobie verwendet, um die Moderation des Effekts vorangegangener Traumatisierung auf den Therapieerfolg durch einen genetischen Faktor (MAOA Gen) zu untersuchen. Hauptergebnisse: Nur ein geringer Anteil von Betroffenen entwickelt nach der Konfrontation mit einem trauamtischen Ereignis psychische Störungen. Dies gilt auch in Populationen mit einem erhöhten Risiko für multiple und schwere Traumata. Die durchgeführten Studien zur Identifikation von Moderatoren weisen darauf hin, dass Personen mit einer erhöhten Ansteckbarkeit für negative Emotionen anderer eine stärkere initiale Stressreaktion bei Traumaexposition aufweisen. Darüber hinaus zeigen Männer mit Traumatisierung in der Kindheit einen stärkeren Anstieg von Alkoholcraving nach der Konfrontation mit einem akuten Trauma. Weiterhin sind niedrige basale Cortisol Level mit einem höheren Risiko für einen Anstieg der PTBS Symptomatik sowie im Alkoholkonsum nach traumatischen Ereignissen assoziiert. Schließlich gibt es Hinweise auf geringere Therapieeffekte bei vorangegangener Traumatisierung bei einer Subgruppe von weiblichen Patientinnen mit Panikstörung mit der niedrig aktiven Variante des MAOA Gens. Schlussfolgerungen: Es konnten neue Kandidaten für mögliche Moderatoren identifiziert sowie die Relevanz bekannter Moderatoren in neuen Kontexten gezeigt werden. Einige dieser Moderatorvariablen stellen vielversprechende Ziele für Risikomarker vor und unmittelbar nach der Konfrontation mir traumatischen Ereignissen dar. Weitere Forschung ist nötig, um die hier identifizierten Moderatoren zu bestätigen und die zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen aufzudecken. Zudem sollte künftige Forschung die Befunde zu verschiedenen Moderatoren integrieren um daraus effektive Risikobewertungen und gezielte Frühinterventionen ableiten zu können.