<p>This thesis investigates the effects of sample preparation methods, which has substantial influence on the internal structure or fabric of the sample, and interparticle locking on the behaviour of sand through experimental study. Extensive laboratory tests were conducted on two sands (namely, Ottawa sand and crushed limestone) with distinct particle shape and surface texture, using a Bishop-type triaxial testing system.</p><p>A total of eight sample preparation methods were used to fabricate specimens with different initial fabric, with specimens being fabricated using water pluviation, moist tamping, and moist rodding. The experimental data reveal that sample preparation methods have significant effect on both deformation characteristics and shear strength of sand, in addition to the density and the effective confining pressure applied to the specimens. More specifically, water pluviation and moist tamping tend to yield specimens of high anisotropy and large dilation, which in turn results in higher friction angle in conventional triaxial compression. The effect of sample preparation methods was also observed from undrained tests on saturated sand.</p><p>Laboratory tests on crushed limestone consisting of angular particles demonstrate that strong interparticle locking may develop owing to particle angularity. The shear resistance of sand with angular particles has contributions from interparticle friction, dilatation and interparticle locking. Moreover, interparticle locking, which largely exists at the peak shear resistance of sand but vanishes with dilation at large deformation, exists under both low and high stress levels investigated in this study. A conceptual model was proposed to take into account the energy consumption associated with breaking interparticle locking during deformation when estimating the dilatancy and strength of granular soils.</P><P>The behaviour of sand along proportional strain paths was also investigated, with the focus being placed on strain softening and material instability in the context of Hill's second order work. Depending on the strain path or the deformation history, a dilatant sand displaying hardening and stable behaviour under isochronic (undrained) conditions, which is often used as a reference in soil mechanics, may succumb to unstable flow type behaviour along dilative strain paths. More specifically, when the imposed rate of dilation exceeds the inherent rate of dilation of the material, a dense sand specimen will have flow failure similar to that of a saturated loose specimen subjected to undrained compression. On the other hand, a loose sand may not have a flow failure when it is forced to have contractive volume change along imposed strain paths.</P> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

The mid-Atlantic coast region, an area of continental significance to migratory and wintering waterfowl and shorebirds, contains numerous moist-soil impoundments that are managed for waterbirds. Positive relationships between nonbreeding body condition and subsequent survival and reproduction have been documented for waterfowl, yet few evaluations of habitat management consider nutritional value of foods. I assessed 2 types of impoundment manipulation, using nutritional data as a basis for evaluation.Invertebrate and plant seed production were measured in disced and control plots in impoundments at Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge. Seed production was higher (P = 0.0614) in disced (1052 ± 468 kg / ha) than in control (529 ± 226 kg / ha) plots. Discing produced higher Chironomid larva abundance during spring, and higher abundance of Amphipods and non-Chironomid Diptera during fall. Waterbird predation reduced abundance of Chironomid larvae, non-Chironomid Diptera, and Amphipods. The predation effect on Total Invertebrate dry mass was 2x higher in disced than in control areas.Invertebrate production also was measured in habitats denuded by foraging greater snow geese (Anser caerulescens atlantica) at Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge. Chironomid larvae were 2 -6x more abundant in vegetated habitats than in areas where geese had foraged intensively, but exclosure data showed little effect of shorebird predation on invertebrate abundance. These results suggest that high goose populations can reduce waterbird food availability, and that shorebird use of invertebrates in denuded habitats is low.Mean true metabolizable energy (TME) of moist-soil seeds and invertebrates in blue-winged teal (Anas discors) ranged from -0.18 - 3.47 kcal / g. Correction of means for fiber concentration eliminated negative values, thereby enhancing their practical value.Potential duck use-days predicted using TME and seed production data were about 2x higher for disced than for control areas at Back Bay. Magnitude of the discing effect on duck use-days was largely insensitive to different estimates of seed nutritional value, although substantial variation in absolute measures of potential carrying capacity occurred. Discing positively influenced invertebrate abundance, and quantity and quality of moist-soil seeds produced, and should be considered a viable habitat management approach for both shorebirds and waterfowl. / Ph. D.

The east-west oriented cloud bands in the tropics are called the Inter-tropical Con-vergence Zones (ITCZ). Till recently, the ITCZ has been assumed to have a simple vertical structure with convergence near the surface boundary layer and divergence near the tropopause. Recent work has shown that the ITCZ can have a complex ver-tical structure with multi-level ows. This complex structure has a profound impact on the mass, momentum and energy budget in the ITCZ. This thesis addresses the factors that govern the shallow meridional circulation that occurs in the ITCZ and the mechanisms that govern the abrupt poleward transition and the gradual poleward migration . The shallow meridional circulation forms when the boundary layer ow that con-verges in the ITCZ, rises above the boundary layer and diverges in the lower tropo-sphere. The ow above the boundary layer is in the direction opposite to the direction of the ow within the boundary layer. Some authors have argued that this is caused by the reversal of pressure gradients just above the boundary layer in response to strong sea surface temperature gradients. This hypothesis neglects the eect of plan-etary rotation on the ow and was found to be insucient to explain the formation of shallow meridional circulation. In the east Pacic ocean, the shallow circulation forms only to the south of the ITCZ when the ITCZ forms away from the equator, while it is absent when the ITCZ forms close to the equator. The aqua-planet simulations of the equatorial and the o-equatorial ITCZ were conducted using Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0). The model used the Eulerian dynamical core with T42 horizontal resolution and 26 levels in vertical. Each simulation was run for 3 years and analysis of last six months was presented. The simulations reproduced the contrast in the vertical structure of the equatorial and o-equatorial ITCZ. The shallow circulation was simulated with-out the reversal of pressure gradients and the SST gradients were weakest when the shallow circulation was simulated. We have proposed a new mechanism for the exis-tence of shallow meridional circulation in the ITCZ. We have argued that, in Earth's atmosphere, the mean horizontal ow generally occurs in the direction perpendicular to the direction of applied pressure gradient due to the action of Coriolis force. If the local rotational eects of the ow (relative vorticity) cancels the action of the Coriolis force, then a ow along the pressure gradient is possible. We demonstrated that this condition was satised only to the south of the ITCZ when it forms away from the equator. The ITCZ is characterized by the maximum mass convergence in the boundary layer. The mass convergence is mainly caused by the deceleration of poleward ow in the boundary layer. When the ITCZ forms close to the equator, the ow in the boundary layer is a resultant of vector addition of three forces, a pressure gradient force in the north-south direction (i.e., the ow towards low pressure), a Coriolis force which acts in the east-west direction( perpendicular to the direction of the ow), and surface friction which opposes the resultant ow. When the ITCZ forms away from the equator a three way balance does not capture the dynamics of ow. As the poleward ow is accelerated towards low pressure, it has to advect a considerable amount of zonal momentum with it which acts to retard the poleward ow. This eect of advection of zonal momentum has to be included in the force balance to obtain an accurate estimate of the ow and associated convergence. The ITCZ acts like a heat engine. The energy is gained near the surface, some energy is transported towards pole while some is utilized in driving the meridional circulation. The rest is rejected near the tropopause. The transport within the troposphere occurs through the vertical or horizontal advection of the energy due to vertical and horizontal motions respectively. Our analysis of the ITCZ suggests that; a large amount of transport occurs through horizontal motions that was neglected in the previous studies. The detailed analysis suggests that the latent energy in the form of mass of water vapor is exported out of the ITCZ at dierent levels in association with the multilevel ows. The equatorial and the o-equatorial ITCZ are dierent because, evaporation is larger in the o-equatorial ITCZ when compared to the equatorial ITCZ. The ITCZ shows a strong sub-seasonal variability in its location in the Indian Ocean and the west Pacic Ocean during boreal summer. There are two favorable locations, one near the equator and another away from the equator, for formation of the ITCZ. The equatorial ITCZ either propagates abruptly or gradually to the o-equatorial location. A detailed analysis of moisture and momentum budget of the simulated abrupt and gradual propagations enabled us to separate the role of thermo-dynamic and dynamic processes. We found that, if the equatorial ITCZ would propa-gate abruptly or gradually to the o-equatorial location is decided by the availability of the water vapor in the boundary layer between the two locations of the ITCZ, i.e., by the thermodynamic processes. But, such a transition to the o-equatorial location is allowed only when the constraints imposed by the re-adjustment in the circulation are satised. In simple terms, these constraints emerge due to two processes. 1. The Earth (lower boundary of the atmosphere) spins at maximum eective radius near the equator. As a result, the atmosphere gains maximum angular momentum near the equator (`zonal momentum' in Cartesian co-ordinates) . The ITCZ is one of the primary avenues to transport the zonal momentum from the lower troposphere to the upper troposphere. When the favorable location of ITCZ is near the equator, the location of ITCZ and the location where atmosphere gains maximum zonal momentum are coincident. The ITCZ and associated meridional circulation transports the zonal momentum upwards which is then transported polewards. As the favorable location of ITCZ moves away from the equator, the two locations are die rent. As a result, the atmospheric ow has to re-adjust so that the zonal momentum is transported from the equator to the favorable location of the ITCZ which then transports it upwards and polewards. In summary, this thesis proposes a new mechanism for the generation of shallow meridional circulation, the abrupt transition and the gradual propagations of the ITCZ.

The distribution of wild biodiversity in agroecosystems affect crop performance and yield in various ways. In this thesis I have studied the impact of wild biodiversity, in terms of trees and forest structures, on crop pests, pollinators and the pollination services provided in a heterogeneous landscape in southwestern Ethiopia.  Coffee, Coffea arabica, is a forest shrub native to Ethiopia and is grown in most wooded areas in the landscape where I conducted my studies. Wild coffee is still found in remote parts of the forests in the landscape. For my first paper, I surveyed pest damage on coffee in coffee forest sites, where some sites were situated in continuous forest and some in isolated forest patches. I found the variation in pest damage frequency to mainly be among coffee plants within a site, rather than among sites, which indicates the importance of local processes. However, some pests were clearly connected to the forest habitat, such as the olive baboon. In my second study, I surveyed pollinators visiting coffee flowers across a gradient of shade-tree structures. I found the semi-wild honeybee to be the dominating flower visitor. The abundance of the honeybee was not related to shade-tree structures, but to amount of coffee flower resources in the site. On the other hand, other pollinators, which included other bee species and hoverflies, were positively affected by more shade trees in the site. In my third study I investigated how the forest cover affected local bee communities in the agricultural landscape. Moreover, I investigated if this relationship differed between the dry and rainy season. The distribution of food resources for bees changes between the seasons, which may affect the bees. Most trees, fruit trees and coffee, which are patchy resources, flowers in the dry season, whereas most herbs and annual crops, which are more evenly spread resources, flowers during the rainy season. I found a clear turnover in bee species composition between the dry and rainy season, with more mobile species in the dry season. Increased forest cover in the surrounding landscape had a positive impact on bee abundance and species richness. However, the impact did not change between seasons. In my fourth study I evaluated the pollination success and pollen limitation of a common oil crop in the landscape in relation to forest cover. I found severe pollen limitation across the landscape, which may be related to the observed low bee abundances. The pollen limitation was not related to surrounding forest cover. In conclusion, I have found the forest and wooded habitats to impact several mobile animals and pathogens in our study landscape, which in turn affect people. However, there is large complexity in nature and general relationships between forest structures and all crop related organisms may be unlikely to find. Various species are dependent on different resources, at different spatial scales and are interacting with several other species. To develop management strategies for increased pollination services, for reduced pest damage or for conservation in the landscape, more species-specific knowledge is needed. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master’s Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2015. / Background: When a soft tissue injury occurs the blood vessels and surrounding tissue are damaged leading to haemorrhaging and inflammation. Cryotherapy (cold therapy) is generally acknowledged as the preferable treatment by manual therapists during this immediate post-traumatic period of an injury. Cryotherapy has been shown to result in vasoconstriction decreasing the rate of blood flow which has a favourable effect on inflammation and pain. The commercially available cooling cuff is a relatively new cryotherapy modality offering a mechanism of cooling that does not require freezing and is easy to use. The polymer granules within the cooling cuff are activated by emersion in water therefore freezing is not required making the cooling cuff readily available compared to more traditional forms of cryotherapy. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a moist ice pack and a commercially available cooling cuff radial artery blood flow (cm.s-1) and radial artery lumen diameter (mm) after 15 minutes of application. Method: This study was a pre-test post-test design utilising 43 asymptomatic participants that were randomly allocated to one of two groups. Each group either received a standard moist ice pack or a commercially available cooling cuff, placed on the ventral surface of the participants forearm, over the radial artery, for a duration of 15 minutes. Measurements were taken with a Doppler ultrasound to determine radial artery blood flow and lumen diameter, prior to the intervention and 15 minutes after the cryotherapy application. Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS VERSION 20 (IBM Corp. Released 2010.IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 19.0. Armonk, New York: IBM Corp.). Statistical significance was set at a p< 0.05 level. Intra-group and inter-group comparisons were measured using repeated measures ANOVA testing. Results: Both the moist ice pack and commercially available cooling cuff resulted in a significant decrease in radial artery blood flow (p< 0.001) after 15 minutes of application with no significant changes being observed in radial artery diameter Conclusions: The commercially available cooling cuff resulted in a similar effect on radial artery blood flow and lumen diameter as moist ice, indicating that the commercially available cooling cuff may be utilised in the acute phase of an injury to alter blood flow. / M

O enriquecimento com diferentes formas de vida, como com epífitas, é fundamental para o desenvolvimento de florestas em restauração, em paisagens fragmentadas, onde a dispersão natural é limitada. Epífitas são plantas que crescem sobre outras (forófitos). Têm papel ecológico importante, realizando ciclagem de nutrientes e oferecendo microambientes e alimentos a outras formas de vida. Características de forófitos, clima e microclima influenciam populações locais de epífitas. Para aumentar o sucesso do enriquecimento em florestas em restauração, é importante determinar quais filtros podem atuar no processo. Fizemos o censo de áreas que receberam autorização para supressão vegetal e obtivemos que, a cada ano, cerca de 500 ha de Florestas Estacional Semidecidual e Ombrófila Densa, em diferentes estágios de regeneração, são desmatados, apenas no estado de São Paulo. Elas podem fornecer material que pode ser recuperado e empregado na restauração de outras florestas. Neste trabalho, damos enfoque às epífitas que podem ser disponibilizadas a partir desse desmatamento. Transferimos 360 indivíduos de seis espécies delas, entre Bromeliaceae (Aechmea bromeliifolia e Tillandsia pohliana), Orchidaceae (Catasetum fimbriatum e Rodriguezia decora) e Cactaceae (Lepismium cruciforme e Rhipsalis floccosa) para duas Florestas Estacionais Semideciduais em processo de restauração, uma com 13 anos e outra com 23. As médias anuais de cobertura de dossel, entre os forófitos escolhidos, variaram entre 62,2 e 85,0% na floresta de 13 anos e entre 79,3 e 92,9% na floresta de 23 anos. Taxas de sobrevivência das diferentes espécies de epífitas foram superiores em floresta mais jovem, variando de 63.33 a 100%, enquanto em floresta mais madura variaram entre 55,17 e 89,66%. Transplantes usando fibra de palmeiras, capaz de reter água, e realizados no início de estação chuvosa podem ter explicado o maior sucesso em floresta mais nova. Taxas de sobrevivência, fixação, ramificação, floração e frutificação não estiveram relacionadas à espécie de forófito, à rugosidade de casca ou à posição de transplante. Por outro lado, elas estiveram relacionadas às espécies das próprias epífitas. Apenas em algumas situações e para determinadas espécies, taxas de fixação, ramificação e reprodução sexuada estiveram relacionadas aos valores de cobertura de dossel. Animais podem ter importantes papéis como polinizadores e dispersores de epífitas, o que mostra que sua presença na floresta é fundamental para a permanência dessas plantas em longo prazo. Ao final, separamos as principais conclusões tiradas deste trabalho e fizemos um guia de procedimentos práticos a serem adotados no enriquecimento de florestas em restauração usando epífitas provenientes de florestas a serem suprimidas. / Enrichment using non-arboreal life forms, such as epiphytes, is critical to the development of forests under restoration, in fragmented landscapes, where natural dispersal is scarce. Epiphytes are plants that grow on top of other plants (phorophytes). They play very important ecological role, performing nutrient cycling and providing microenvironments and food to other life forms. Features of phorophytes, climate, and microclimate influence local diversity of epiphytes. In order to improve success of enrichment in areas under restoration, it is important to determine what filters may play a role in this process. We censused areas that received authorization for vegetation removal and found out that, every year, about 500 ha of Semideciduous Seasonal Forests and Rainforests, in different regeneration stages, are legally cut down, only in the state of Sao Paulo. They can provide material that can be recovered and used to restore other forests. In this work, we focused on the epiphytes that may become available from deforestation. We transferred 360 individuals of six species of this life form among Bromeliaceae (Aechmea bromeliifolia and Tillandsia pohliana), Orchidaceae (Catasetum fimbriatum and Rodriguezia decora) and Cactaceae (Lepismium cruciforme and Rhipsalis floccosa) to two different Semidecidual Seasonal Forests in process of restoration, one of them was 13 years old and the other, 23 years old. Annual canopy cover averages provided by diffferent phorophytes ranged from 62.2 to 85.0% in 13-year old forest and from 79.3 to 92.9% in 23-year-old forest. Survival rates of epiphytes species were higher in the younger forest, from 63.33 to 100%, compared to the ones obtained in the more mature forest, from 55.17 to 89.66%. Transplants performance using palm tree fiber, which enables higher water retention, and at the beginning of rainy season may have been responsible for higher survival rates in the young forest. Survival, rooting, sprouting, flowering and fruiting rates were not related to phorophyte species, to their bark roughness nor to the position of transplantation. On the other hand, they were always relatated to epiphyte species. Only in some cases and for determined species, rooting, sprouting, flowering and fruiting were related to canopy cover. Animals can play important roles as pollinators and dispersers of epiphytes, which shows that their presence in forests is fundamental for the long-term persistance of these plants. In the end, we gathered the main results taken from this work and organized a guide of practical procedures to be adopted in enrichment of areas using epiphytes from forests about to be suppressed.

O pau de balsa é uma espécie arbórea que apresenta importância econômica principalmente pelos diversos usos da madeira, e ecológica por sua participação na sucessão florestal. Até o presente momento o principal meio de multiplicação desta espécie tem sido por sementes. A obtenção de mudas clonais é a principal dificuldade para o cultivo em larga escala dessa espécie. Portanto, o uso da técnica de propagação vegetativa para a silvicultura clonal, como por exemplo, o processo de estaquia, torna-se uma ferramenta útil para superar as possíveis dificuldades que as mudas produzidas a partir de sementes trazem para a silvicultura. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito do diâmetro da estaca, o tratamento com promotor de enraizamento (AIB), diferentes tipos de substrato e o uso da câmara úmida, avaliando-se o enraizamento, a formação de calos e sobrevivência de estacas de Ochroma pyramidale. Para tanto, quatro experimentos foram instalados, o primeiro foi realizado para avaliar a interação entre o diâmetro das estacas a serem divididas entre o fino, médio e espesso, relacionado ao uso de AIB nas concentrações de 0 e 5.000 mg.L-1. No segundo experimento avaliou-se a interação entre a aplicação de AIB nas concentrações de 0, 1000, 2000 e 4000 mg.L-1 e a região de origem das estacas no ramo, em basal, mediana e apical. No terceiro experimento foram avaliados os tipos de substrato (Areia, Carolina II, Fibra de coco e Vermiculita) em interação com as estacas das duas diferentes origens do ramo (mediana e apical). Por fim, no quarto experimento avaliou-se o uso de ambiente protegido por câmara úmida e a aplicação de diferentes concentrações de AIB (0, 2000, 4000 e 6000 mg.L-1). Concluiu-se que a sobrevivência das estacas é maior entre estacas de diâmetros médio e espesso (1 a 2 cm de diâmetro) e entre estacas provenientes da parte basal do ramo. Quanto ao uso de AIB, os maiores índices de sobrevivência são apresentados quando se aplica 1000 mg.L-1 de AIB, e também sem o uso de ambiente protegido por câmara úmida. A formação de calos é maior entre as estacas de diâmetros médio e espesso (1 a 2 cm de diâmetro) e entre as estacas da parte basal do ramo. Em relação à formação de calos e utilização de AIB, as maiores taxas ocorreram na ausência, 1000 e 4000 mg.L-1 de AIB. O enraizamento das estacas O. pyramidale ocorreu quando 6000 mg.L-1 de AIB foi aplicado. / The balsa wood is a tree species that has economic importance mainly by the many uses of wood, and ecological for its participation in the forest succession. Until the present time, the main way of multiplication of this species have been by seeds. Obtaining clone stakes is the main difficulty for large-scale cultivation of this species. Therefore, the use of the vegetative propagation technique for the clonal silviculture, as for example by cuttings process, becomes useful tools for overcome the possible difficulties that seedlings produced from seeds bring to forestry. This work aimed to evaluate the effect of the diameter of the cutting, the treatment with rooting promoter (IBA), different types of substrate and the use of the chamber moist, by evaluating the rooting, the callus formation and the survival of cuttings of O. pyramidale. For this purpose, four experiments were set up, the first one was carried out to evaluate the interaction between the diameter of the cuttings to be divided between thin, medium and thick, related to the use of AIB in the concentrations of 0 and 5,000 mg.L-1. In the second experiment was evaluated the interaction between the application of IBA at the concentrations of 0, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg.L-1 and the source region of the cuttings in the branch, in basal, median and apical. In the third experiment was evaluated the types of substrate (Sand, Carolina II, Fiber of coconut, and Vermiculite) in interaction with cutting of the two different origins of the branch (median and apical). Finally, in the fourth experiment we evaluated the use of protected environment by the chamber moist and the application of different IBA concentrations (0, 2000, 4000 and 6000 mg.L-1). It was concluded that the survival of the cutting is higher among the cutting of diameters of medium and thick (1 to 2 cm in diameter) and between the cutting originating from the basal branch. As to the use of IBA, the highest rates of survival are shown when applied to 1000 mg.L-1 of IBA, and without the use of environment-protected chamber moist. The callus formation is greater between medium and thick diameters cuttings (1 to 2 cm in diameter) and between cuttings from the branch basal part. Regarding to callus formation and IBA utilization, the highest rates occurred in the absence, 1000 and 4000 mg.L-1 of IBA. The O. pyramidale cuttings rooting occurred when 6000 mg.L-1 of IBA was applied.

O enriquecimento com diferentes formas de vida, como com epífitas, é fundamental para o desenvolvimento de florestas em restauração, em paisagens fragmentadas, onde a dispersão natural é limitada. Epífitas são plantas que crescem sobre outras (forófitos). Têm papel ecológico importante, realizando ciclagem de nutrientes e oferecendo microambientes e alimentos a outras formas de vida. Características de forófitos, clima e microclima influenciam populações locais de epífitas. Para aumentar o sucesso do enriquecimento em florestas em restauração, é importante determinar quais filtros podem atuar no processo. Fizemos o censo de áreas que receberam autorização para supressão vegetal e obtivemos que, a cada ano, cerca de 500 ha de Florestas Estacional Semidecidual e Ombrófila Densa, em diferentes estágios de regeneração, são desmatados, apenas no estado de São Paulo. Elas podem fornecer material que pode ser recuperado e empregado na restauração de outras florestas. Neste trabalho, damos enfoque às epífitas que podem ser disponibilizadas a partir desse desmatamento. Transferimos 360 indivíduos de seis espécies delas, entre Bromeliaceae (Aechmea bromeliifolia e Tillandsia pohliana), Orchidaceae (Catasetum fimbriatum e Rodriguezia decora) e Cactaceae (Lepismium cruciforme e Rhipsalis floccosa) para duas Florestas Estacionais Semideciduais em processo de restauração, uma com 13 anos e outra com 23. As médias anuais de cobertura de dossel, entre os forófitos escolhidos, variaram entre 62,2 e 85,0% na floresta de 13 anos e entre 79,3 e 92,9% na floresta de 23 anos. Taxas de sobrevivência das diferentes espécies de epífitas foram superiores em floresta mais jovem, variando de 63.33 a 100%, enquanto em floresta mais madura variaram entre 55,17 e 89,66%. Transplantes usando fibra de palmeiras, capaz de reter água, e realizados no início de estação chuvosa podem ter explicado o maior sucesso em floresta mais nova. Taxas de sobrevivência, fixação, ramificação, floração e frutificação não estiveram relacionadas à espécie de forófito, à rugosidade de casca ou à posição de transplante. Por outro lado, elas estiveram relacionadas às espécies das próprias epífitas. Apenas em algumas situações e para determinadas espécies, taxas de fixação, ramificação e reprodução sexuada estiveram relacionadas aos valores de cobertura de dossel. Animais podem ter importantes papéis como polinizadores e dispersores de epífitas, o que mostra que sua presença na floresta é fundamental para a permanência dessas plantas em longo prazo. Ao final, separamos as principais conclusões tiradas deste trabalho e fizemos um guia de procedimentos práticos a serem adotados no enriquecimento de florestas em restauração usando epífitas provenientes de florestas a serem suprimidas. / Enrichment using non-arboreal life forms, such as epiphytes, is critical to the development of forests under restoration, in fragmented landscapes, where natural dispersal is scarce. Epiphytes are plants that grow on top of other plants (phorophytes). They play very important ecological role, performing nutrient cycling and providing microenvironments and food to other life forms. Features of phorophytes, climate, and microclimate influence local diversity of epiphytes. In order to improve success of enrichment in areas under restoration, it is important to determine what filters may play a role in this process. We censused areas that received authorization for vegetation removal and found out that, every year, about 500 ha of Semideciduous Seasonal Forests and Rainforests, in different regeneration stages, are legally cut down, only in the state of Sao Paulo. They can provide material that can be recovered and used to restore other forests. In this work, we focused on the epiphytes that may become available from deforestation. We transferred 360 individuals of six species of this life form among Bromeliaceae (Aechmea bromeliifolia and Tillandsia pohliana), Orchidaceae (Catasetum fimbriatum and Rodriguezia decora) and Cactaceae (Lepismium cruciforme and Rhipsalis floccosa) to two different Semidecidual Seasonal Forests in process of restoration, one of them was 13 years old and the other, 23 years old. Annual canopy cover averages provided by diffferent phorophytes ranged from 62.2 to 85.0% in 13-year old forest and from 79.3 to 92.9% in 23-year-old forest. Survival rates of epiphytes species were higher in the younger forest, from 63.33 to 100%, compared to the ones obtained in the more mature forest, from 55.17 to 89.66%. Transplants performance using palm tree fiber, which enables higher water retention, and at the beginning of rainy season may have been responsible for higher survival rates in the young forest. Survival, rooting, sprouting, flowering and fruiting rates were not related to phorophyte species, to their bark roughness nor to the position of transplantation. On the other hand, they were always relatated to epiphyte species. Only in some cases and for determined species, rooting, sprouting, flowering and fruiting were related to canopy cover. Animals can play important roles as pollinators and dispersers of epiphytes, which shows that their presence in forests is fundamental for the long-term persistance of these plants. In the end, we gathered the main results taken from this work and organized a guide of practical procedures to be adopted in enrichment of areas using epiphytes from forests about to be suppressed.

Rice not collected by harvesters and natural seeds are important foods for waterfowl. Estimation of abundance of these seeds is necessary for calculating waterfowl habitat conservation needs in the Louisiana Chenier Plain (LCP) and Texas Mid-Coast (TMC). My objectives were to quantify dry mass of rice and other seeds from August-November 2010, and estimate waterbird abundances on farmed and idle ricelands in these regions from December 2010-March 2011. Rice abundance in farmed ricelands ranged from 159.7 kg/ha (CV = 66.6%) to 1,014.0 kg/ha (CV = 8.3%). Natural seed abundance in idle ricelands ranged from 99.7 kg/ha (CV = 32.9%) to 957.4 kg/ha (CV = 17.2%). Greatest waterbird densities occurred in shallowly flooded (i.e., ¡Ü30 cm) disked ricelands (mean = 7.35 waterbirds/ha, 90%; CI = 2.37-19.70). Ratoon, disked, and shallowly flooded ricelands are important habitat for non-breeding waterbirds but variable estimates of seed and waterbird abundances warrant continuation of this study.

Penstemon gibbensii and Penstemon haydenii are two rare, perennial forbs inhabiting remote areas of the western United States. P. gibbensii is listed as a sensitive species by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming (Heidel, 2009). P. haydenii was designated as Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987 (Heidel, 2012). This thesis research was geared toward helping land managers in their efforts to protect and rehabilitate these species by providing understanding on different aspects of their seed ecology. My first study was a laboratory experiment performed on P. gibbensii and P. haydenii seed germination response to moist chilling and dry after-ripening. Wild harvested seeds were subjected to moist chilling at 2-4 °C for 0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks and held in dry storage for approximately 2 years to determine effective methods for breaking primary dormancy. P. gibbensii seed germination increased consistently with increased length of chilling up to 16 weeks and exhibited habitat-correlated variation in this response. P. haydenii seed germination increased from 1 to 100% germination with 4 weeks of chilling. P. haydenii germination was greatest (96%) when incubated under a cool, diurnally-fluctuating temperature regime (10-20 °C) and responded positively to dry storage, increasing germination from 0 to 15%. My second study was an in situ field study designed to characterize the active seed bank of P. haydenii. We set up a transect line across a P. haydenii population and measured the number of seeds entering the seed bank, lost to predation post-dispersal, and persisting in the seed bank. P. haydenii does not appear to form an ecologically significant seed bank. Approximately 140 seeds/ 10m2 could potentially enter the seed bank but only 1 seed in the upper 10cm of sand persisted. Heavy post-dispersal insect predation resulted in a decrease in viability of nearly 30% in exposed P. haydenii seeds after just 12 hours. My third study explored the effects of burial by sand on P. haydenii. Wild-harvested seeds were planted in pots at 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10cm deep in sand and incubated at 10-20 °C. Seed germination and mortality and seedling emergence were measured. The response of dormant seeds to post-burial incubation was determined. Burial depth decreased seedling emergence and seed germination. Shallow burial appears to induce secondary dormancy for seeds that don't germinate quickly, whereas deep burial appears to impose enforced dormancy in burial.