In meeting the high demand for monoclonal antibodies, the chicken immunoglobulin system was exploited to generate recombinant antibodies against multiple target antigens. Following simultaneous immunisation of two chickens with a mixture of Plasmodium falciparum recombinant lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), histidine rich protein II (HRPII) and aldolase (ALDO), recombinant trypanosome variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) and malignant catarrhal fever virus (MCFV) each chicken produced egg yolk antibodies (IgY) against four of the five antigens. Using phage display technology, two single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibody libraries, one with the immunoglobulin VH and VL chain regions joined by a single amino acid (G) and the other with a 15 amino acid flexible linker [(G4S) 3] were constructed using pooled splenic RNA. The single amino acid-linked scFv repertoire was evaluated as a source of highly specific diagnostic antibodies by panning against each of the five different antigens. After two rounds of panning, polyclonal phage ELISA showed the presence of antigen-specific phage antibodies against three (LDH, HRPII and VSG) of the five antigens. Five different anti-LDH and six different anti-HRPII scFvs were identified by sequence analysis. Evidence of high levels of antigen-driven gene conversion events was found in the framework and complementary determining regions and the VL chain pseudogene donors were identified. Stability of the selected scFvs was determined by incubation at different times and at different temperatures. The specificity and potential use of an LDH-specific scFv as a diagnostic reagent was shown in sandwich and competitive inhibition ELISAs. / Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Science))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / unrestricted

Type II Ribosome Inactivating Proteins (RIPs), commonly known as A/B toxins are heterodimers comprising of a catalytically active A chain, an RNA N-glycosidase which inhibits protein synthesis and a lectin-like B chain required for the binding of the toxin to the cell surface and internalization of the same. Abrin is a type II RIP obtained from the mature seeds of Abrus precatorius plant that is extremely toxic and has been shown to be 75 times more potent than its well studied sister toxin, ricin. The LD50 dose for abrin is only 2.8 µg/kg body weight of mice and its potential use in bio-warfare is a cause of major concern. Abrin has been classified as a select agent by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S.A., because it is stable, effective at very low concentrations and easy to purify and disseminate in large amounts. In spite of abrin being a potential bio-warfare agent, there is no antidote or vaccine available against this toxin till date. The first and only neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) against abrin, namely D6F10, was reported from our laboratory and has been shown to rescue toxicity of abrin in cells as well as in mice. The study reported in the thesis focuses on understanding the mechanism of neutralization of abrin by the mAb D6F10 and development of a potential vaccine candidate against the toxin. In order to map the epitope corresponding to the antibody, first, overlapping gene deletion constructs spanning the entire length, 251 amino acids, of ABA were generated and checked for binding to the mAb. Fragments shorter than 1-175 did not show immuoreactivity. Analysis of the crystal structure of abrin A chain revealed that a helix spanning the amino acids 148-167 was present at the core of the protein structure and truncation in this region of the protein possibly results in loss of conformation leading to abrogation of antibody binding. Therefore, a novel strategy of epitope mapping was adopted. Abrus precatorius agglutinin (APA) is a homologue of abrin obtained from the same plant source. The A chains of abrin and APA share 67% sequence identity and their crystal structures superimpose very well but unlike abrin the APA A chain does not bind the mAb D6F10. Chimeric constructs were generated within the region 1-175 of A chains of both ABA and APA and deletions and mutations of the ABA was then made on the APA as scaffold. It could be concluded that the amino acids of the region 75¬123 are involved in the formation of the epitope. Further, based on sequence alignment of ABA and APA A chain 13 residues in the chimera ABA1-123APA124-175 were mutated and it was found that the mutation of the residues Thr 112, Gly 114 and Arg 118 resulted in loss of binding to the antibody. Furthermore, the mAb D6F10 rescues inhibition of protein synthesis by abrin in HeLa cells by internalizing in cells along with abrin and possibly occluding the active site cleft of ABA. The antibody prevents cell attachment of abrin at higher concentrations. The observations provide novel insights into mechanisms of many known neutralizing antibodies against A/B toxins. The study also highlights that chimeric protein constructs could possibly be developed as potential vaccine candidates for neutralization of abrin intoxication.

Le CD154 est une glycoprotéine transmembranaire de type II, appartenant à la famille des facteurs de nécrose tumorale (TNF) et s’exprime d’une façon transitoire à la surface des lymphocytes T activés et des plaquettes. Notre laboratoire a démontré que la forme membranaire devient soluble suite à un clivage enzymatique par les métalloprotéinases (ADAM-10 et ADAM-17). De plus, il a été montré que le CD154 soluble (sCD154) peut aussi être relâché du milieu intracellulaire sans qu’il soit exprimé à la surface cellulaire suite à un clivage enzymatique intracellulaire entre les résidus acide Glutamique 112 (E112) et Méthionine 113 (M113). Les deux formes du CD154, soluble et membranaire, possèdent une structure trimérique nécessaire pour son activité biologique. Son récepteur principal, le CD40, est une glycoprotéine de type I appartenant à la famille des récepteurs des TNFs. Il est exprimé constitutivement à la surface des cellules B, des cellules dendritiques, des macrophages, des basophiles, des plaquettes, ainsi qu’à la surface de certaines cellules non hématopoïétiques telles que les cellules endothéliales, les fibroblastes et les cellules du muscle lisse vasculaire. Outre le CD40, quatre autres récepteurs appartenant à la famille des intégrines, ont été identifiés: l’αIIbβ3, l’α5β1, l’αMβ2, l’αvβ3 et l’α4β1. Les études de notre laboratoire ont démontré que l’interaction du CD154 avec ses récepteurs induit une activation bidirectionnelle, cependant, on a observé que le clivage du CD154 de la membrane cellulaire reste une propriété privilège au CD40. Le travail illustré dans cette thèse consiste à étudier l’inhibition du clivage enzymatique du CD154 et son effet dans la régulation de la réponse immune. Les résultats générés ci-dessous montrent que le CD154 résistant au clivage est un stimulant plus important que sa forme clivable. En effet, la double mutation des résidus E112 et M113 du CD154 abolit sa libération spontanée du milieu intracellulaire ainsi que son clivage de la membrane médié par le CD40 sans affecter sa liaison à ce dernier. Ce mutant s'est avéré capable d'induire une réponse apoptotique plus importante des cellules B, des réponses prolifératives plus prononcées et déclenche la différenciation des cellules B humaines d’une manière plus significative que le CD154-WT. De plus, notre étude met en évidence le développement et la caractérisation d'un anticorps monoclonal (mAb), le Clone 8, capable d'inhiber la libération/le clivage du CD154 à partir des cellules et ainsi de le maintenir à la surface cellulaire et d'augmenter sa puissance en tant qu'activateur des réponses induites par le CD40. Le Clone 8 est capable de lier le CD154 murin et d’inhiber son clivage de la surface cellulaire de la même façon que celle étudiée dans les cellules humaines. Ces travaux vont permettre le passage de cet anticorps bloquant le clivage du CD154 au stade des essais cliniques afin de mettre en place un nouveau traitement efficace pour les maladies auto-immunes et le cancer. / CD154 is a type II transmembrane glycoprotein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNF), that is transiently expressed on the surface of activated T cells and platelets. We have demonstrated that this membrane form becomes soluble following an enzymatic cleavage by metalloproteinases (ADAM-10 and ADAM-17). CD154 also exists in a soluble form originating from a direct release of an intracellular processing without being expressed on the cell surface. This fragment is the result of an intracellular enzymatic cleavage between the residues Glutamic acid at position 112 (E112) and Methionine at position 113 (M113). Both soluble and membrane-bound forms of CD154 occur as non-covalently-linked homotrimers a property conveying to CD154 its biological activity. Its main receptor, CD40, is a type I glycoprotein belonging to the TNF receptor family. It is constitutively expressed on the surface of immune and non-immune cells including B cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, basophils, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and vascular smooth muscle cells. CD154 was also shown to bind other receptors: αIIbβ3, α5β1, αMβ2, αvβ3 and α4β1 integrin. We have shown that the interaction of CD154 with its receptors induces bidirectional activation, however, only CD40 was capable of inducing the cleavage of CD154 from T cell surface. Our results here consist in studying the inhibition of the enzymatic cleavage of CD154 and its effect in the regulation of the immune response. Our data show that the cleavage resistant CD154 is a more potent stimulant than its cleavable form. Indeed, the double mutation of residues E112 and M113 of CD154 abolishes its spontaneous release from the intracellular milieu as well as its cleavage from the membrane. This mutant was found to be able to induce a stronger apoptotic response from B cells, induce more pronounced proliferative responses and trigger human B cell differentiation in a more significant way than CD154-WT. In addition, our study highlights the development and characterization of a monoclonal antibody (mAb), Clone 8, capable of inhibiting the release/cleavage of CD154 from cells and thus maintain it on the cell surface and increase its potency as an activator of CD40-induced responses. Clone 8 binds murine CD154 and inhibit its cell surface cleavage in the same way that in human cells. This study will allow the passage of this antibody blocking the cleavage of CD154 to the stage of clinical trials to develop a novel tool to treat diseases in which CD154 is implicated.

Optical sensor systems that integrate Long-Period-Gratings (LPG) as the detection arm have been proven to be highly sensitive and reliable in many applications. With increasing public recognition of threats from bacteria-induced diseases and their potential outbreak among densely populated communities, an intrinsic, low-cost biosensor device that can perform quick and precise identification of the infection type is in high demand to respond to such challenging situations and control the damage those diseases could possibly cause. This dissertation describes the development of a biosensor platform that utilizes polymer thin films, known as ionic self-assembled multilayer (ISAM) films, to be the sensitivity- enhancing medium between an LPG fiber and specific, recognition layer. With the aid of cross- linking reactions, monoclonal antibodies (IgG) or DNA probes are immobilized onto the surface of the ISAM-coated fiber, which form the core component of the biosensor. By immersing such biosensor fiber into a sample suspension, the immobilized antibody molecules will bind the specific antigen and capture the target cells or cell fragments onto the surface of the fiber sensor, resulting in increasing the average thickness of the fiber cladding and changing the refractive index of the cladding. This change occurring at the surface of the fiber results in a decrease of optical power emerging from the LPG section of the fiber. By comparing the transmitted optical power before and after applying the sample suspension, we are able to determine whether or not certain bacterial species have attached to the surface of the fiber, and as a consequence, we are able to determine whether or not the solution contains the targeted bacteria. This platform has the potential for detection of a wide range of bacteria types. In our study, we have primarily investigated the sensitivity and specificity of the biosensor to methicillin- resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA). The data we obtained have shown a sensitive threshold at as low as 102 cfu/ml with pure culture samples. A typical MRSA antibody-based biosensor assay with MRSA sample at this concentration has shown optical power reduction of 21.78%. In a detailed study involving twenty-six bacterial strains possessing the PBP2a protein that enables antibiotic resistance and sixteen strains that do not, the biosensor system was able to correctly identify every sample in pure culture samples at concentration of 104 cfu/ml. Further studies have also been conducted on infected mouse tissues and clinical swab samples from human ears, noses, and skin, and in each case, the system was in full agreement with the results of standard culture tests. However, the system is not yet able to correctly distinguish MRSA and non-MRSA infections in clinical swab samples taken from infected patient wounds. It is proposed that nonspecific binding due to insufficient blocking methods is the key issue. Other bacterial strains, such as Brucella and Francisella tularensis have also been studied using a similar biosensor platform with DNA probes and antibodies, respectively, and the outcomes are also promising. The Brucella DNA biosensor is able to reflect the existence of 3 Brucella strains at 100 cfu/ml with an average of 12.2% signal reduction, while negative control samples at 106cfu/ml generate an average signal reduction of -2.1%. Similarly, the F. tularensis antibodies biosensor has shown a 25.6% signal reduction to LVS strain samples at 100 cfu/ml, while for negative control samples at the same concentration, it only produces a signal reduction of 0.05%. In general, this biosensor platform has demonstrated the potential of detecting a wide range of bacteria in a rapid and relatively inexpensive manner. / Ph. D.