Ao contrário de muitos polímeros, as resinas fenólicas se caracterizam por possuir um grande número de aplicações por conta de sua superior resistência ao fogo e baixa emissão de fumos e ao seu excelente nível de resistência térmica e química, além de seu baixo custo. No entanto, devido à sua estrutura tridimensional, caracterizada pelo alto grau de reticulação, este tipo de resina apresenta baixas tenacidade e resistência à fratura. Com isso, para garantir seu bom desempenho, faz-se necessário promover modificações em sua formulação ou acrescentar agentes de reforço de modo a compensar essas deficiências resultantes de sua estrutura. São inúmeros os materiais que, usualmente, são incorporados à matriz fenólica. Além da preparação de blendas poliméricas em que uma das fases consiste em um elastômero ou um termoplástico, a introdução de agentes de reforço como materiais fibrosos também são utilizados. São exemplos de agentes de reforço: fibras vegetais, fibras de vidro e de carbono, negro de fumo, argilas entre outros. A mistura de polímeros e argilas pode levar à formação de nanocompósitos de modo a obter excelentes combinações de resistência à fratura, tenacidade, condutividade, resistência ao calor e redução da permeabilidade a gases e líquidos quando comparados com o polímero puro. Neste trabalho, argilas do tipo montmorilonita modificadas foram utilizadas como agente de reforço na preparação de filmes de nanocompósitos de matriz fenólica com o objetivo de melhorar as propriedades mecânicas deste material polimérico quando comparado com o material puro. A resina fenólica utilizada neste trabalho é a do tipo resol, utilizada comercialmente para a formulação de vernizes para revestimento de embalagens metálicas. No estudo foram utilizadas três argilas comerciais: Cloisite® sódica (Na) e argilas Cloisite® modificadas com sais quaternários de alquilamônio, de códigos 15A e 30B, objetivando verificar qual apresentaria melhor compatibilidade com a matriz fenólica. Para a preparação de filmes poliméricos uniformes, isentos de defeitos como bolhas, foi feita, de forma preliminar, a seleção de um ciclo de cura apropriado. Como a formação de bolhas é intrínseco à cura da resina fenólica resol, a definição de um esquema de tratamento térmico de cura apropriado constituiu-se em etapa crítica no processo de preparação dos compósitos de resina fenólica/argila montmorilonita modificada. Os filmes curados isentos de defeitos foram caracterizados por difração de raios X, análise termomecânica dinâmica (DMA) e calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC). Os resultados das análises de DRX mostraram para os compósitos preparados com as argilas modificadas 15A e 30B manutenção e até mesmo redução do espaçamento basal da estrutura cristalina das argilas, indicando não ter ocorrido intercalação do polímero nessas argilas; enquanto que para a argila Cloisite® Na ocorreu aumento do espaçamento basal. Os resultados de DMA mostraram para a maioria das amostras aumento no módulo de armazenamento em baixa e alta temperatura. Por último, a análise de DSC mostrou redução na temperatura de transição vítrea nos compósitos preparados com as argilas modificadas 15A e 30B, e elevação na composição de 5% da argila Cloisite® Na. Os resultados indicam o potencial de reforço mecânico de resinas fenólicas com argilas lamelares do tipo montmorilonita sem a necessidade de modificação química. / Unlike most polymers, phenolic resins are characterized by having a large number of applications because of its superior fire resistance and low emission of smoke and its excellent level of thermal and chemical resistance, and low cost. However, due to its three dimensional structure, characterized by a high degree of crosslinking, this type of resin has low toughness and fracture resistance. Thus, to ensure their good performance, it is necessary to make enhancements in their formulation or adding strengthening agents so as to compensate for these deficiencies due to its structure. There are numerous materials that usually are incorporated into the phenolic matrix. Besides the preparation of polymer blends in which one phase consists of an elastomer or a thermoplastic, the introduction of agents such as fibrous reinforcement is also used. Examples of reinforcing agents: vegetable fibers, glass and carbon fibers, carbon black, clay and others. The mixture of polymer clays may cause the formation of nanocomposites in order to obtain excellent combination of fracture strength, toughness, conductivity, heat resistance and reduced permeability to gases and liquids when compared with the pure polymer. In this work, modified montmorillonite clays were used as a reinforcing agent in the preparation of nanocomposite films of phenolic matrix with the aim of improving the mechanical properties of polymer materials when compared with the pure material. The phenolic resin used in this work is that of the resol type, used commercially for the formulation of varnish for coating metal containers. The study used three types of commercial clay: Cloisite® sodium (Na) and Cloisite® clays modified with quaternary alkylammonium salts, codes 15A and 30B in order to verify which present better compatibility with the phenolic matrix. For the preparation of uniform polymeric films, free of defects such as bubbles, was preliminarily selected a suitable cure cycle. As the bubble formation is intrinsic to the cure of resol phenolic resin, the definition of a heat treatment scheme is a critical step in the process of preparing composites of phenolic resin/montmorillonite clay. The cured films free of defects were characterized by X-ray diffraction (DRX), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results of XRD analysis showed the composites prepared with the modified clays 15A and 30B maintained and even reduced the basal spacing within the clay crystal structure, indicating not having occurred polymer intercalation of the clay; for the Cloisite® Na clay DRX has shown increased basal spacing. DMA results showed for most of the samples increase in storage modulus at low and high temperatures. Finally, DSC analysis showed a reduction in glass transition temperature of the composites prepared with the modified clays 15A and 30B, and an increase in the composition of 5% in the Cloisite® Na clay. The results indicate the potential of enhancement of phenolic resins mechanical properties with layered clays of montmorillonite without chemical modification.

Substantial environmental contamination has occurred from coal tar creosote and pentachlorophenol (C5P) in wood preserving solutions. The present studies focused on the characterization and remediation of these contaminants. The first objective was to delineate a sequence of biological changes caused by chlorinated phenol (CP) exposure. In Clone 9 cells, short-term exposure to 10 ?M C5P decreased pH, GJIC, and GSH, and increased ROS generation. Long-term exposure caused mitochondrial membrane depolarization (25 ?M), increased intracellular Ca2+ (50 ?M), and plasma membrane depolarization (100 ?M). Cells were affected similarly by C5P or 2,3,4,5-C4P, and similarly by 2,3,5-C3P or 3,5-C2P. Endpoints were affected by dose, time, and the number of chlorine substituents on specific congeners. Thus, this information may be used to identify and quantify unknown CPs in a mixture to be remediated. Due to the toxic effects observed due to CP exposure in vitro, the objective of the second study was to develop multi-functional sorbents to remediate CPs and other components of wood preserving waste from groundwater. Cetylpyridinium-exchanged low pH montmorillonite clay (CP-LPHM) was bonded to either sand (CP-LPHM/sand) or granular activated carbon (CP-LPHM/GAC). Laboratory studies utilizing aqueous solution derived from wood preserving waste indicated that 3:2 CP-LPHM/GAC and CP-LPHM/sand were the most effective formulations. In situ elution of oil-water separator effluent indicated that both organoclay-containing composites have a high capacity for contaminants identified in wood preserving waste, in particular high molecular weight and carcinogenic PAHs. Further, GAC did not add substantial sorptive capacity to the composite formulation. Following water remediation, the final aim of this work was to explore the safety of the parent clay minerals as potential enterosorbents for contaminants ingested in water and food. Calcium montmorillonite and sodium montmorillonite clays were added to the balanced diet of Sprague-Dawley rats throughout pregnancy. Based on evaluations of toxicity and neutron activation analysis of tissues, no significant differences were observed between animals receiving clay supplements and control animals, with the exception of slightly decreased brain Rb in animals ingesting clay. Overall, the results suggest that neither clay mineral, at relatively high dietary concentrations, influences mineral uptake or utilization in the pregnant rat.

This dissertation describes a new electrochemical synthesis of novel composite materials based on montmorillonite (MMT) clay and intrinsically conducting polyaniline (PANI). PANI was successfully incorporated into MMT galleries to form PANI−MMT nanocomposites. Electropolymerization of anilinium ions which are intercalated inside the clay layers have been carried out at a constant applied potential. The synthetic conditions have been optimized taking into account the effect of concentration of aniline, magnetic stirring and potential cycling. The resulting organic-inorganic hybrid material, PANI-MMT has been characterized by various physicochemical techniques. Results of elemental analysis show that nanocomposite contains only 10 % of conducting PANI. Formation of PANI inside the clay tactoid has been confirmed by the expansion of inter layer distance of MMT as revealed by X-ray diffraction studies. Relatively lower interlayer expansion for PANI-MMT than that of anilinium-MMT indicates the higher stereoregularity in PANI-MMT which has strong influence on electrical properties of nanocomposites. Infrared spectroscopy studies reveal the presence of physicochemical interaction, probably hydrogen bonding, between clay and polyaniline. Cyclic voltammetry studies indicate that presence of electroinactive clay does not influence the electrochemical activity of PANI. Electrochromic behaviour of PANI-MMT nanocomposites have been studied using in situ UV-Vis spectroscopy which reveals that electrochromism of PANI in the composite material has been retained. One of the main technological applications of conducting polymers, particularly PANI, is in the area of corrosion protection of active metals. PANI-MMT nanocomposites synthesized using the present method and a chemically synthesized PANI which is soluble in organic solvents have been used to protect C45 steel surface against corrosion. Corrosion studies have been performed using electrochemical impedance measurements(EIM)and anodic polarization studies. Electrochemical impedance data has been analyzed using a suitable equivalent circuit. Corrosion protection of steel offered by both PANI-MMT and organically soluble PANI is evident form the increase in the value of charge transfer resistance of the coated steel surfaces. Time dependent EIM measurements reveal that charge transfer resistance gradually decreases with time, however, the values are much higher than that of uncoated surfaces. Two capacitive loops, one at higher and another at lower frequencies, observed in the Nyquist plots have been assigned to the electrical properties of coating material (in the present case, PANI-MMT or soluble PANI) and electrochemical process at the interface, respectively. An anodic shift in the corrosion potential, a decrease in the corrosion rate and a significant increase in the polarization resistance indicate a significant anti-corrosion performance of both PANI-MMT nanocomposite and organically soluble PANI deposited on the protected steel surface. / Diese Dissertation beschreibt eine neue elektrochemische Synthese neuartiger Compositmaterialien basierend auf dem Tonmineral Montmorillonite (MMT) und intrinsisch leitfähigem Polyanilin (PANI). Die Elektropolymerisation von Aniliniumionen, welche in die Tonmineralschichten eingebaut sind, wurde bei einem konstanten Potenzial durchgeführt. Das resultierende organisch-anorganische Hybridmaterial PANI-MMT wurde mit verschiedenen physikochemischen Methoden charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse der Elementaranalyse zeigen, dass nur 10 % des Nanocompositmaterials aus leitfähigem PANI bestehen. Die Vergrößerung des Zwischenschichtabstandes von MMT, die bei Röntgendiffraktometrieuntersuchungen beobachtet wurde, lässt auf die Bildung von PANI innerhalb der Tonmineral-Taktoide schließen. IR-spektroskopische Untersuchungen deuten auf das Vorhandensein von Wechselwirkungen physikochemischer Art, wahrscheinlich Wasserstoffbindungen zwischen dem Tonmineral und Polyanilin, hin. Untersuchungen mit zyklischer Voltammetrie zeigten, dass die Anwesenheit von elektroinaktivem Tonmineral die elektrochemische Aktivität von PANI nicht beeinflusst. Das elektrochrome Verhalten von PANI-MMT Nanocompositen wurde mit UV-Vis-Spektroskopie untersucht, wobei sich herausstellte, dass das elektrochrome Verhalten vom PANI im Compositmaterial erhalten bleibt. Eines der technologischen Hauptanwendungsgebiete von leitfähigen Polymeren, insbesondere von PANI, ist der Korrosionsschutz von aktiven Metallen. PANI-MMT Nanocomposite die mit der angegebenen Methode (elektrochemisch) synthetisiert wurden und chemisch synthetisiertes in organischen Medien lösliches PANI wurden zum Korrosionsschutz von C45 Stahl eingesetzt. Die Korrosionsuntersuchungen wurden mit Hilfe von elektrochemischen Impedanzmessungen (EIM) und anodischen Polarisationsuntersuchungen durchgeführt. Der von PANI-MMT und von in organischen Medien löslichem PANI gebotene Korrosionsschutz ist wahrscheinlich auf die Zunahme des Ladungsdurchtritts widerstandes der beschichteten Stahloberfläche zurückzuführen. Die anodische Verschiebung des Korrosionspotenzials, eine Verringerung der Korrosions-geschwindigkeit und eine deutliche Zunahme des Polarisationswiderstandes sind eindeutige Hinweise für das Antikorrosionsvermögen von PANI-MMT und auch von in organischen Medien löslichem PANI, welche auf der zu schützenden Stahloberfläche abgeschieden wurden.

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This study was undertaken to prepare polystyrene (PS)/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites by different methods, including melt intercalation, in-situ polymerization and masterbatch methods. The in-situ polymerization method consisted of dispersing the styrene monomer into the galleries of MMT followed by subsequent polymerization. The PS/MMT nanocomposites formed by melt intercalation method were prepared on a twin-screw extruder. The masterbatch method was in fact a two-step process. As the first step, a high clay content composite of polystyrene (masterbatch) was prepared by in-situ polymerization, and then the prepared masterbatch was diluted to desired compositions with commercial polystyrene in a twin-screw extruder.The structural, thermal and mechanical properties of the nanocomposites were examined. X-Ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the d-spacing of the in-situ formed nanocomposites containing 0.73 and 1.6 wt. %organoclay increased from 32.9 &amp / #506 / to 36.3 and 36.8 &amp / #506 / respectively, indicating intercalation while the dspacing of the other prepared materials remained nearly unchanged compared to pure organoclay. At low clay content, (&lt / 1 wt.%), in-situ formed nanocomposites showed the best improvement in mechanical properties including tensile, flexural, impact strength and Young&rsquo / s modulus. In all the three methods, the addition of organoclay increased the Young&rsquo / s modulus compared to neat resin, but the maximum improvement was 88.5 %, obtained at 0.73 wt. % organoclay in the in-situ formed material. In-situ polymerization method did not prove to be efficient at high clay loadings in terms of mechanical properties. At high clay loadings, the effects of the three methods on promoting mechanical properties were not significantly different from each other. The glass transition temperature increased from 105.5 oC in the pure polystyrene to 108.4 oC in the in-situ formed nanocomposite at 0.73 wt % organoclay due to the restricted mobility of the polymer chains within the organoclay layers.

Bentonite is a smectite type clay mineral and swells in water. In this thesis, the effect of acetone, methyl-ethyl ketone, n-hexane on the properties of bentonite was determined by thermal analysis and water absorption tests. The tests indicated no significant change with treating bentonite with organic liquids. Because of the swelling property, only small amount of bentonite can be suspended in water. This may limit certain applications of bentonite. In this thesis, feasibility of suspending large quantities of bentonite in a non-aqueous media was studied. The concentrations for a pumpable high solid bentonite slurry were determined. As aqueous slurry showed pumpable properties up to 30-35 pounds/barrel, this concentration was as high as 125-150 pounds/barrel for acetone, 175-200 pounds/barrel for methyl-ethyl ketone and 325-350 pounds/barrel for n-hexane. Bentonite deposite has a complicated composition, containing free silica minerals, such as quartz, cristobalite, and opal / silicate minerals, such as feldspar, mica, and zeolite / carbonates or sulfates of alkaline earth metals, such as calcite, dolomite, and gypsum / and, in addition, iron compounds and humus. As mined it is primarily broken and dried and then pulverized by means of an attrition grinding machine. In this study dispersion of raw bentonite by high shear blending and shaking forces in the presence of acetone, methyl-ethyl ketone and n-hexane and eliminating the non-clay impurities by screening were studied. Many attempts have been made to provide a bentonite composition retaining the full swelling properties of the bentonite by the addition of non-aqueous liquids for obtaining a flexible waterproofing sheet. In this research the possible method for deposition of bentonite in a sponge by saturating the sponge with bentonite using organic liquids was investigated.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Akron, Dept. of Polymer Engineering, 2005. / "August, 2005." Title from electronic thesis title page (viewed 11/28/2005) Advisor, Lloyd Goettler; Faculty Reader, Avraam I. Isayev; Department Chair, Sadhan C. Jana; Dean of College, Frank N. Kelley; Dean of Graduate School, George R. Newkome. Includes bibliographical references.

Techn. Hochsch., Diss., 2004--Aachen.

Nos dias atuais a busca pela utilização de cargas de reforço aos materiais poliméricos tem sido o grande alvo dos pesquisadores e da indústria. Neste trabalho nanocompósitos de PVC foram obtidos através de duas rotas de preparação, mediante a mistura no estado fundido, utilizando-se uma extrusora monorosca. Empregaram-se diferentes concentrações de montmorilonita e velocidades de injeção nos nanocompósitos. Estes foram caracterizados por suas morfologias, propriedades termomecânicas e termo-dinâmico-mecânicas. O grau de intercalação e esfoliação dos nanocompósitos foi caracterizado por difração de raios X, MET e MEV. O inchamento da argila em plastificante, anterior ao processamento, parece ter induzido um maior grau de intercalação e uma esfoliação parcial em todos os sistemas. As análises termogravimétricas demonstraram pouca influência da carga sobre a estabilidade térmica dos nanocompósitos. / Nowadays the search for the use of reinforcement fillers into polymeric materials has been the great objective of researchers and industry. In this work PVC nanocomposites were obtained through two routes of preparation, by melt blending in a single-screw extruder. Additionally different montimorillonite concentrations and injection speeds were applied to nanocomposites preparation. These were characterized by morphological, thermo-mechanical and thermo-dynamic-mechanical properties. The degree of intercalated and exfoliated of nanocomposites was characterized by x ray diffraction, MET e MEV. The swelled clay in plasticizer, prior of the processing, seems to have induced a higher degree of intercalation and partial exfoliation in all systems. Thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated small influence of the nanofillers on the nanocomposites thermal stability.

Neste trabalho foram obtidos nanocompósitos contendo 0, 1, 2, 5 e 10% (m/m) de argila organofílica montmorilonita cloisite 30B, contendo terminações hidroxila, por processamento reativo entre um pré-polímero com terminações isocianato e o 1,4-butanodiol, utilizando-se um misturador fechado. Os resultados mostraram que os poliuretanos termoplásticos sintetizados foram obtidos com sucesso. A adição de montmorilonita nos TPUs ocasionou a formação de folhas de argila dispersas de maneira intercalada, parcialmente esfoliada, esfoliada e aglomerados na matriz do TPU. Com a adição da argila houve modificações nos comportamentos de cristalização, estabilidade térmcica e mecanismo de degradação, assim como um aumento nos valores de energia aparente de ativação deste processo. A mobilidade de alguns segmentos poliméricos também foi alterada com a adição da argila. Portanto modificações morfológicas e viscoelásticas foram observadas para os nanocompósitos em dependência da quantidade de argila organofílica empregada, assim como a adição da organoargila alterou o comportamento térmico do poliuretano termoplástico, tornando os nanocompósitos mais suscetíveis a mudanças nos processos de fusão e cristalização em função da exposição a temperaturas elevadas. / In this study, were obtained nanocomposites containing 0, 1, 2, 5 and 10% (w/w) of organophilic clay montmorillonite Cloisite 30B, containing hydroxyl terminations, by reactive processing between a prepolymer with isocyanate terminations and 1,4-butanediol, using a closed mixer. The analysis showed that the obtained thermoplastic polyurethanes were synthesized successfully. The addition of the montmorillonite in the TPUs resulted in the formation of sheets of clay dispersed in order intercalated, partially exfoliated, exfoliated and agglomerate in the TPU matrix. With the addition of clay there were changes in the behavior of crystallization, thermal stability and degradation mechanism, as well as an increase in the values of the apparent activation energy of this process. The mobility of certain polymer segments was also changed with the addition of the clay. Therefore viscoelastic and morphological changes were observed in the nanocomposites in dependence on the amount of organophilic clay used, as well as the addition of the organophilic decreased the thermal stability of the thermoplastic polyurethane, making nanocomposites more susceptible to changes in the melting and crystallization processes due to exposure to elevated temperatures.