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Fluffmassa är, i ordets rätta bemärkelse, ett fluffigt material som i de allra flesta fall tillverkas av fibrer ifrån trä, den utgör en viktig del i blöjor, hygienprodukter, näsdukar och ett flertal andra produkter. Syftet med fluffmassa i absorptionsprodukter är framförallt att sprida vätskan, öka absorbtionshastigheten och behålla superabsorberande polymerer på plats i nätverket. Två viktiga kvalitetsparametrar hos fluffmassan är defibreringsenergi och knuthalt. Dessa är korrelerade till hur enkelt fibrerna kan separeras ifrån varandra i torr eller fuktad luft. Denna separation av fibrer är ett högst avgörande steg för att skapa den fluffiga massan ifrån torkade massaark.  Målet med arbetet har varit att reducera defibreringsenergin och knuthalten genom att behandla massa med oorganiska partiklar genom att använda den sk. lager-på-lager (LbL) – metoden där en konsekutiv behandling av fibrerna med motsatt laddade polyelektrolyter och nanopartilkar. Genom att belägga fiberytan med tunna skikt av ett oorganiskt material var avsikten att reducera fiber-fiber-interaktionerna för att slutligen minska defiberingsenergin och knuthalten. Studien visade att en viss effekt kunde uppnås med LbL-skikt av pDADMAC (diallyldimetylammonium klorid) och MMT (montmorillonit) vilket noterades som en minskning av knuthalten från 35% till ungefär 20%, medan defibreringsenergin däremot var oförändrad jämfört med ett obehandlat referensprov. De bildade lagren visade sig vara tunnare och jämnare än förväntat vilket sannolikt ledde till en relativt liten minskning av kontaktyta och molekylär adhesion mellan fibrerna vilket kan förklara den relativt sett låga effekten av tillsatserna. De tunna lagren kan också vara en förklaring till varför ingen nämnvärd skillnad detekteras för olika antal av bildade bilager. Eftersom enbart maximalt 3 bilager studerades kan det vara rimligt att anta att en ytterligare adsorption av bilager kan leda till en ytterligare minskning av knuthalten och defibreringsenergin.  Eftersom MMT-partiklarna inte var direkt synliga i SEM-analyserna är det svårt att säga exakt hur de är fördelade på fiberytan. Antingen är de jämnt fördelade eller så har vissa områden på fiberytan inte blivit täckta av MMT.  Resultaten indikerar också att det finns många intressanta sätt att förbättra lagren för att nå lägre defibrerinsergier och knuthalter. Genom att tex. adsorbera större partiklar istället för tunna MMT-partiklar skulle det vara möjligt att skapa en högre ytråhet och därmed en minskad kontaktyta mellan fibrerna vilket i sin tur skulle kunna minska knuthalten och defibreringsenergin. / Fluff pulp is indeed a fluffy material, it is most commonly composed of pulp fibers from wood and it serves as a vital constituent in diapers, feminine hygiene products, napkins and a variety of other products. The purpose of fluff pulp in absorbent products is mainly to distribute fluids, increase absorption speed and hold superabsorbent polymers within the network. Two important quality parameters of fluff pulp are the defibration energy and the knot content, which are related to the ease at which the fibers can be separated from each other under dry to moist conditions. This separation of fibers is an essential step in generating the fluffy material from sheets.   This project aims to reduce the defibration energy and the knot content by treating fibers with inorganic particles according to the Layer-by-Layer (LBL) technique. The main assumption was that by applying coatings to the fibers, the inter-fiber interactions can be reduced leading to a lowered defibration energy and knot content. The study showed that some effect was accomplished using layers of pDADMAC (diallydimethylammoinium chloride) and MMT (montmorillonite clay), the knot content was reduced from 35% to around 20%, but the defibration energy was unchanged compared to the untreated reference sample. The formed LBL layers appeared to be thinner and smoother than anticipated which likely lead to only a slight decrease in contact area between the fibers, hence, the reduction of knot content was detectable but not very large. Since the formed LBL layers were so thin it was difficult to find any distinguishable difference for the different numbers of bilayers, however, the maximum number of bilayers produced was only three and additional layers could lead to an amplified effect.  Since the MMT particles could not be clearly visualized from the SEM instruments, it is difficult to conclude exactly how the clay platelets were distributed on the fibers. Either the MMT was distributed rather evenly across the surface of the fibers, or some areas of the fibers were left free from LbLs.   The results from the present investigation show that there are many interesting ways to further improve the layers to reach lower defibration energies and knot contents. As an example the adsorption of larger particles instead of thin MMT platelets could be used allowing for a minimization of the contact area between the fibers due to an increased surface roughness of to the fiber surfaces.

La première partie de cette thèse présente la préparation et la caractérisation des nanocomposites (LCPCNs) composés d'une matrice de polymère à cristaux liquides thermotropique (LCP, Vectra B950) contenant des nanoparticules de montmorillonite (argile) organiquement modifiée (OMMT). Des LCPCNs contenant deux concentrations de nanoparticules OMMT (1.3 et 2% massiques) ont été préparés par le procédé d'extrusion. Différentes techniques de caractérisation, telles que la diffraction des rayons X (XRD), la microscopie électronique à transmission (TEM), la calorimétrie différentielle (DSC), l'analyse thermogravimétrique (TGA) et l'analyse mécanique-dynamique (DMA) ont été utilisées pour caractériser la matrice LCP et les nanocomposites LCPCNs développés. Les patrons XRD ainsi que les observations microscopiques TEM ont montré 1'intercalation des nanoparticules OMMT au sein de la matrice LCP et ce pour les deux compositions en OMMT. Aussi, les patrons XRD(2D) ont montré qu'un certain ordre très peu smectique était présent dans le polymère LCP. Cependant, dans le cas de LCPCNs, les chaînes LCP tendaient à s'orienter dans la direction des lamelles d'OMMT dispersées. Les balayages DSC ont montré que, durant le premier chauffage, le premier de pic fusion représente la transition de la phase cristalline à nématique et, après cela, une isotropisation a eu lieu. Les analyses TGA ont montré deux différents types de comportements de dégradation des échantillons LCP et LCPCN dans les environnements inertes et oxydants. Les résultats de DMA ont montré une amélioration des modules élastiques, de stockage et de perte des LCPCNs avec l'augmentation de la concentration en OMMT. La seconde partie de la thèse présente les propriétés rhéologiques à l'état fondu de la matrice LCP et des nanocomposites LCPCNs à la fois dans les zones viscoélastiques linéaires et non linéaires (en modes oscillatoires et rotationnels). Cette caractérisation rhéologique a montré que les LCPCNs les plus chargés en OMMT présentent des structures partiellement réticulées presque sans défauts comparativement aux LCPCNs les moins chargés en OMMT et aussi les LCP purs. Les mesures de relaxation des contraintes (domaine linéaire) ont révélé que, après l'imposition d'une déformation constante pendant une période spécifique, le LCP pur relaxe plus rapidement que les LCPCNs. Lors de l'essai de relaxation, il a été observé qu'un taux de cisaillement élevé modifie très rapidement les défauts dans le LCP pur et probablement atteint presque une position d'équilibre, tandis que les LCPCNs ont montré un fort comportement rhéofluidifiant. Afin de mieux comprendre les propriétés rhéologiques inhabituelles des LCPCNs à l'état fondu, les variations de la dispersion des nanoparticules OMMT dans la matrice LCP ainsi que le changement de la croissance des cristaux du LCP ont été largement étudiés par la technique de diffusion des rayons X aux petits et grands angles. La technique Généralisée de la Transformation de Fourier développée par Glatter a été utilisée pour caractériser l'état de dispersion des nanoparticules OMMT en fonction de la température. Il s'agit d'une nouvelle approche que nous avons récemment proposée pour une analyse quantitative de la dispersion plutôt qu'une analyse qualitative. La troisième partie de la thèse est dédiée à la préparation de nanocomposites à base de poly(éthylène terephthalate) (PET) ainsi qu'à la caractérisation de la croissance des cristaux dans le PET pur et les nanocomposites préparés. Deux nanocomposites à base de PET (PETCNs) avec des concentrations en poids de OMMT égales à 1.3 et 2% ont été préparés par extrusion. Les patrons de diffraction des rayons X ainsi que les images TEM ont révélé la formation de nanocomposites avec des nanoparticules OMMT intercalées. Les comportements de fusion et de cristallisation du PET pur et des PETCNs ont été étudiés en utilisant les techniques de DSC classique et DSC à température modulée (TMDSC). Les résultats de DSC sur des échantillons moulés par compression ont montré des fusions successives avec un pic endothermique, accompagné d'un épaulement pour les PETCNs. Les résultats de DSC et de TMDSC pour les échantillons trempés ont montré que la fusion suivie d'une cristallisation froide. Pour tous les échantillons, les résultats de TMDSC ont également confirmé que la fusion est associée au phénomène de recristallisation. Les résultats de la caractérisation DMA ont montré que les PETCNs ont subi une amélioration considérable du module dans la gamme de températures étudiées. Cependant, l'effet de la variation de la concentration en nanoparticules OMMT est minime. Afin de mieux connaître la cinétique de croissance cristalline (non isotherme) du PET pur et du PETCNs, les modèles D'Avrami, d'Ozawa et d'Avrami-Ozawa ont été utilisés. Différents paramètres cinétiques déterminés à partir de ces modèles ont démontré que les nanoparticules OMMT intercalées étaient efficaces pour démarrer plus tôt la cristallisation par nucléation. Cependant, la croissance des cristaux était moins rapide en raison de l'intercalation de chaînes de polymères entre les lamelles OMMT. Les observations de la microscopie optique en lumière polarisée appuient aussi les résultats de la DSC. Les énergies d'activation pour la cristallisation estimées par les trois modèles (Augis-Bennett, Kissinger et Takhor) ont montré la tendance suivante PETCN2 < PETCN1.3 < PET. L'effet de l'incorporation de nanoparticlues OMMT sur les propriétés thermiques des mélanges de PET/LCP est décrit dans la quatrième partie de cette thèse. Des mélanges PET/LCP (80/20) et des nanocomposites à base de ces mélanges ont été préparés par extrusion bi-vis. Les analyses morphologiques des mélanges PET/LCP ont montré que l'ajout de nanoparticules OMMT favorise une structure à phases séparées du mélange PET/LCP. Une étude détaillée sur les propriétés thermiques du mélange PET/LCP et du nanocomposite PET/LCP/OMMT a été réalisée à l'aide des techniques DSC et TMDSC. Les résultats ont montré un comportement de fusion complexe comportant une succession de fusion et de recristallisation. Enfin, la cinétique de croissance des cristaux (non-isotherme) dans les mélanges PET/LCP et les nanocomposites PET/LCP/OMMT a aussi été caractérisée à l'aide de divers modèles tels que ceux d'Avrami, Ozawa et Avrami-Ozawa. La dernière partie de cette thèse présente les résultats des travaux sur la relation structure-propriétés des mélanges PET/LCP (80/20) développés par extrusion et des nanocomposites PET/LCP/OMMT (1.3 et 2.8% massiques de OMMT) en fonction de la fréquence d'oscillation et de la température. Les expériences de balayage en fréquence sous déformation constante et à différentes températures ont été réalisées à l'état solide à l'aide de la technique DMA. Celles de balayage en température des mélanges PET/LCP purs et des nanocomposites PET/LCP/OMMT ont été effectuées dans le but de déterminer la variation des modules de flexion, de stockage et de perte ainsi que les valeurs tanS correspondantes en fonction de la température. Afin de mieux comprendre les modifications de stmcture des nanoparticules OMMT dispersées dans la matrice PET/LCP, le degré d'anisotropie ainsi que les valeurs moyennes de l'orientation des lamelles OMMT ont été caractérisés à l'aide de la technique de diffusion de la lumière aux petits angles, avant et après les caractérisations sous balayage en fréquence and en température.

L’électrofilage est actuellement la méthode la plus utilisée pour la production de nanofibres grâce à sa simplicité, sa reproductibilité et la possibilité d’être industrialisée. Grâce à leurs propriétés particulières telles qu’un grand rapport surface-volume, une porosité inter-fibre élevée et une grande capacité d’adsorption, les nanofibres électrofilées sont de bons candidats pour de nombreuses applications telles que la filtration, les masques respiratoires, les matériaux composites, etc. Cependant, certaines applications particulières, telles que les capteurs, les systèmes d'administration contrôlée de médicaments ou les super condensateurs, exigent que les nanofibres doivent présenter des propriétés complémentaires telles que la conductivité électrique, la porosité de surface de nanofibres, l’hydrophobicité, ou d’autres propriétés particulières. Certains nanomatériaux comme les nanotubes de carbone, la silice mésoporeuse ordonnée, les argiles, ont des propriétés particulières comme la conductivité électriques élevée des nanotubes de carbone, la porosité des matériaux de silice mésoporeuse ordonnée ou de l’argile. Ces propriétés des nanomatériaux peuvent être les fonctions complémentaires cherchées. Dans notre étude, des non-tissés composés de nanofibres de polyacrylonitrile chargées par nanotubes de carbone à multi-parois (MWNT), de la montmorillonite sodique (MMT-Na) ou de la silice mésoporeuse ordonnée (de type SBA-15), sont produits par électrofilage. Les résultats montrent que l’insertion de MWNT rend le non-tissé conducteur en augmentant la conductivité électrique volumique par six ordres de grandeur (de ~ 2×10-12 à ~ 3×10-6 S/m) avec un très faible seuil de percolation de 0.5 % massique. Lorsque le non-tissé est soumis à une compression, la conductivité électrique volumique augmente en augmentant la pression (jusqu’à ~ 2 kPa). Ces non-tissés conducteurs sont très intéressants pour le développement des capteurs à faible amplitude. Les résultats montrent aussi que l’accessibilité des pores des particules inorganiques (c’est-à-dire, les mésopores de SBA-15 et l’espace interfoliaire de MMT-Na) insérées dans la structure nano fibreuse est encore possible. Il a été trouvé que plus de 50% des mésopores de SBA-15 insérées sont encore accessibles quelles que soit les conditions de l’électrofilage et la fraction massique de SBA-15. En outre, l’insertion de ces particules inorganiques apporte plus de stabilité thermique aux nanofibres composites. / Electrospinning is the most common method for the production of nanofibres due to its simplicity, repeatability, and the ability to be scaled up. Owing to their advanced properties like the high surface-to-volume ratio, high interfibrous porosity, high adsorption capacity, etc. electrospun nanofibers are good candidates for many applications such as filtration, respiratory masks, composite materials and others. However, some specific applications including sensors, controlled drug delivery systems, supercapacitors, etc. still require complimentary functions that do not exist in pristine nanofibers in their basic structure like the electrical conductivity, surface porosity of the nanofibers, hydrophobicity, and others.Nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes, ordered mesoporous silica, layered silicate, etc. are characterized by particular properties like the high electrical conductivity of carbon nanotubes, the porosity of ordered mesoporous silica or layered silicate. These particular properties of nanomaterials can fulfill of the targeted functions.In our study, nonwovens made from nanofibers of polyacrylonitrile incorporated with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNT), layered silicate type Na-montmorillonite (Na-MMT) or ordered mesoporous silica type SBA-15 are successfully produced by electrospinning.Results reveal that the incorporation of MWNT altered the electrical state of the nonwoven from insolent to conductor where the volume electrical conductivity increased by six order of magnitude (from ~ 2×10-12 to ~ 3×10-6 S/m) with a very low percolation threshold of about 0.5 wt%. The application of mechanical pressure to the conductive nonwoven causes an increase in the volume electrical conductivity with the increase of the applied pressure (up to ~ 2 kPa). Such conductive nonwoven is very interesting for the development of sensor with low amplitude.Results also show that accessibility of the pores of the inorganic particles (i.e. mesopores of SBA-15 and interlayer space of Na-MMT) incorporated into the nanofibers is still possible. It is found that at least 50% of SBA-15 mesopores are still accessible whatever is the electrospinning conditions and SBA-15 mass fraction. In addition, the incorporation of the studied inorganic particles yields higher thermal stability for the composite nanofibers.

Materiais nanoestruturados têm recebido destaque na comunidade científica, destacando-se, dentre eles, os nanocompósitos à base de polímeros e argila. Quando esses materiais são obtidos no estado líquido, ressalta-se também o uso de água em substituição a solventes orgânicos, devido a questões ambientais. Neste trabalho foram sintetizadas dispersões aquosas à base de poliuretanos (WPUs) e argila hidrofílica do tipo montimorilonita (MMT) de natureza sódica, com o objetivo de avaliar as propriedades de barreira a gases conferidas pela presença de argila e pela variação nas proporções entre os segmentos flexíveis poli(glicol propilênico) (PPG) e o copolímero em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG). Os monômeros empregados na síntese foram: poli(glicol propilênico) (PPG); copolímero em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG), com teor de 7% de EG; ácido dimetilolpropiônico (DMPA), diisocianato de isoforona (IPDI) e etilenodiamina (EDA), como extensor de cadeia. Foram sintetizadas dispersões aquosas com e sem a presença de argila, fixando-se a razão entre o número de equivalentes-grama de grupos diisocianato e hidroxila (razão NCO/OH) em 1,5. Nas formulações foi variado também o teor de argila em relação à massa de prepolímero em 0,5% e 1%. Foi adicionada uma etapa de agitação adicional com dispersor Turrax em algumas formulações. A argila foi previamente deslaminada em água deionizada e incorporada à formulação na etapa da dispersão do prepolímero. As dispersões foram avaliadas, quanto ao teor de sólidos totais, tamanho médio de partícula e viscosidade aparente. Os filmes vazados a partir das dispersões foram caracterizados por espectrometria na região do infravermelho (FTIR) e permeabilidade ao CO2. A resistência térmica dos filmes foi determinada por termogravimetria (TG). Foram observadas modificações nas propriedades dos filmes obtidos com a inserção da argila e com a variação no teor de segmentos à base de poli(glicol etilênico). A inserção da argila promoveu uma melhoria na resistência térmica das membranas bem como uma redução na permeabilidade das mesmas. Foi observado um aumento na permeabilidade das membranas obtidas a partir das formulações com maior percentual de copolímero (EG-b-PG), com e sem argila. / Nanostructured materials have been receiving increasing attention of scientific community, especially systems of nanocomposites based on polymer and clay. These materials can be obtained in aqueous state and the use of water, replacing organic solvents, is an important line of research due to environmental issues. In this work, dispersions based on waterbone polyurethanes and sodic hydrophilic clay montmorillonite (MMT) were synthesized, in order to evaluate the possible formation of nanocomposites (NWPUs). The monomers employed in the synthesis were: poly (propylene glycol) (PPG), block copolymer based on poly (ethylene glycol) and poly (propylene glycol) (EG-b-PG), containing 7% ethylene glycol; dimethylolpropionic acid (DMPA); isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI); and ethylenediamine (EDA) as chain extender. Aqueous dispersions with and without clay were synthesized by fixing the ratio between the equivalent-grams of diisocyanate and hydroxyl groups (NCO/OH ratio) in 1.5. The clay content also varied from 0.5% to 1% related to prepolymer initial mass. An additional stirring step with Turrax disperser was made in some formulations. The clay was previously delaminated in deionized water and incorporated at prepolymer dispersion in water-addition step. The dispersions were then evaluated in terms of solids content, particle size and apparent viscosity. The films cast from dispersions were characterized by infrared spectrometry (FTIR), thermogravimetry (TG) and permeability to CO2. Cast films were obtained and the gas barrier properties imparted by the clay were analyzed as well as the influence of poly (ethylene glycol) segments content. The insertion of clay imparted an improvement in thermal resistance properties and a decrease in membrane permeability. It was also observed an increase in permeability to CO2 of membranes obtained from formulations containing the higher amount of copolymer (EG-b-PG), independent of clay content.

The introduction of a nanoscopic reinforcing phase to a polymer matrix offers great possibilities of obtaining improved properties, enabling applications outside the boundaries of traditional composites. The majority of the work in this thesis has been devoted to polymer/clay nanocomposites in coating applications, using the hydroxyl-functional hyperbranched polyester Boltorn® as matrix and montmorillonite clay as nanofiller. Nanocomposites with a high degree of exfoliation were readily prepared using the straightforward solution-intercalation method with water as solvent. Hard and scratch-resistant coatings with preserved flexibility and transparency were obtained, and acrylate functionalization of Boltorn® rendered a UV-curable system with similar property improvements. In order to elucidate the effect of the dendritic architecture on the exfoliation process, a comparative study on the hyperbranched polyester Boltorn® and a linear analogue of this polymer was performed. X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy confirmed the superior efficiency of the hyperbranched polymer in the preparation of this type of nanocomposites. Additionally, an objective of this thesis was to investigate how cellulose nanofibers can be utilized in high performance polymer nanocomposites. A reactive cellulose “nanopaper” template was combined with a hydrophilic hyperbranched thermoset matrix, resulting in a unique nanocomposite with significantly enhanced properties. Moreover, in order to fully utilize the great potential of cellulose nanofibers as reinforcement in hydrophobic polymer matrices, the hydrophilic surface of cellulose needs to be modified in order to improve the compatibility. For this, a grafting-from approach was explored, using ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone (CL) from microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), resulting in PCL-modified MFC. It was found that the hydrophobicity of the cellulose surfaces increased with longer graft lengths, and that polymer grafting rendered a smoother surface morphology. Subsequently, PCL-grafted MFC film/PCL film bilayer laminates were prepared in order to investigate the interfacial adhesion. Peel tests demonstrated a gradual increase in the interfacial adhesion with increasing graft lengths. / QC20100621

The aim of the thesis has been to evaluate and understand the effect of caustic alkali solution of varying composition on the behaviour of expansive soil containing mixed layered minerals. Mixed layered minerals are formed of two or more kinds of inter grown layers, not physical mixtures. Illite - smectite is the most abundant and wide spread of the mixed layered clay minerals in sedimentary rocks and soils and also more common than either discrete illite or smectite. In geotechnical engineering much attention has not been paid to the behaviour of soils containing mixed layered minerals. Much less is known about the behaviour of these soils in polluted environment. Mixed layered minerals are more susceptible to environmental changes as the structural linkages between the layer minerals are weak compared to normal layered phyllosilicates. One important pollutant that can have considerable effect on the behaviour of soils is the caustic alkali contamination released from various industries. Recent studies have shown that the behaviour of even stable minerals is affected by alkali contamination. However, the effect of caustic alkali contamination on the behaviour of soils containing mixed layered minerals is not known and has been chosen for detailed study. Also to understand the mechanism of their interaction with alkali, it is necessary to study the effect of alkali solutions on the constituent clay minerals viz., montmorillonite and illite under similar conditions. To elucidate the mechanism of soil alkali interaction limited tests were conducted with simple electrolyte solution, as the alkali solution also acts as electrolyte apart from being alkaline. To confirm the mechanism of interaction, tests are also conducted on these soils with industrial spent liquor containing high caustic alkali and suspended alumina obtained from an alumina extraction plant treating bauxite with high alkali solutions at high temperatures. The results obtained in the laboratory are compared with the soil samples contaminated with leaking industrial Bayer's liquid in the field. Studies are also conducted to suggest remedial measures to control the adverse effects of alkali solutions on soil containing mixed layer minerals. The content of the thesis is broadly divide into 8 Chapters - viz., Introduction, Background and overview, Experimental program and procedures, Behaviour of soils containing mixed layer mineral illite - smectite (BCSI), Behaviour of montmorillonite and illite, Influence of Bayer's liquor and study on the field contaminated soils, Measures to control the influence of alkali contamination on BCSI and Summary and conclusions. The broad outline of these chapters is given in Chapter 1. A review of literature on the behaviour of soils containing different types of clay minerals with emphasis on mixed layer minerals has been presented in Chapter 2. The influence of different inorganic contaminants on the properties of soils in terms of their physical and chemical characteristics as well as their concentration has been summarized. The importance of changes in surface characteristics of soil particles and the changes in the thickness of diffuse double layer in altering the property of soils at low concentration of contaminants and changes in the mineralogy with high concentrated contaminants such as acids and alkalis has been highlighted. This forms the background information necessary to bring out the scope of the study. Four soils having different mineralogy have been used in this study. These soils are, black cotton soil containing predominantly mixed layer mineral illite - smectite mineral called rectorite, illite, montmorillonite (common smectite) and black cotton soil containing predominantly montmorillonite. The properties of the soils used are described in Chapter 3. Caustic alkali solutions of 1N, 4N concentration prepared in the laboratory and industrial alkali-spent liquor are used as contaminants. The spent Bayer's liquor had about 4N alkali concentration and 10% alumina in suspension. To simulate the effect of suspended alumina, two more caustic alkali solutions of 1N and 4N solutions containing 10% alumina by weight of solutions are also prepared. To isolate the effect of electrolyte solutions from that of alkali solution, two electrolyte solutions of 1N and 4N sodium chloride solutions are also used. Test procedures for conducting various tests such as pH, water adsorption characteristics, X-ray diffraction studies, SEM studies, thermal characteristics and geotechnical properties such as Atterberg limits, Oedometer tests and Shear Strength are given in this chapter. The test procedures are modified, wherever necessary, to bring out the effect of contaminants, particularly the effect of duration of interaction on the properties of soils. The source and properties of black cotton soil are presented in Chapter 4. Detailed x-diffraction studies have confirmed the presence of inter layered illite-smectite mineral viz., rectorite, which is uncommon in Indian expansive soils, and is classified as CH (Clay of high compressibility) as per ASTM soil classification. Effect of alkali and salt solutions of 1N and 4N concentration on all physico chemical and geotechnical properties are studied in this chapter. As it is known that presence of certain elements such as aluminium influence the soil alkali interaction, the effect of suspended alumina along with alkali solution has also been investigated. The effect of contaminating fluids such as 1N NaOH, 4N NaOH with and without alumina, 1N NaCl and 4N NaCl on the geotechnical properties of the soil has been studied. Mineralogical changes were observed by XRD and thermal studies in the soil treated with 4N NaOH solution and 4N NaOH + 10% alumina. The interlayer potassium of illite is released and potassium hydroxide is formed in soil treated with 4N NaOH. Swelling compounds such as sodium aluminium silicate hydroxide hydrate (SASH) has formed due to attack of 4N NaOH + 10% alumina on silica rather than on rectorite. Thus the studies clearly bring out that the rectorite present in the soil is dissociated only in the presence of strong alkali solutions of concentration of about 4N. The liquid limit of soil decreased with increase in the electrolyte concentration in the case of NaCl solutions. With 1N NaOH, the liquid limit of soil increased due to increase in the thickness of diffuse double layer due to increased pH. However, Proctor's maximum dry density increased and optimum moisture content decreased with 1N NaOH. With increase in the concentration of alkali solution to 4N, the rectorite dissociates into constituent minerals with the formation potassium hydroxide. The liquid limit of soil decreased probably due to the dominating influence of electrolyte nature of hydroxide solution over the effect of increased negative charge on clay particles due increase in the pH on the constituent minerals. Proctor's maximum dry density decreased and optimum moisture content increased with 4N NaOH. Sediment volume and oedometer free swell at seating/nominal surcharge load of 6.25 kPa of soil increased in 1N and 4N caustic alkali solutions, though by different mechanisms. The increase with 1N solution is essentially due to increased negative charges on clay mineral surface. However, the increase in swelling with 4N solution is associated with the dissociation of rectorite mineral and occurs in two distinct phases unlike in the case of 1N solution. While the first phase can be attributed to the effect of alkaline nature of the solution after reduction in its concentration due to reaction with rectorite and the consequent reduction in its electrolyte nature. The second phase is due to the swelling of the separated constituent minerals in the presence of excess of alkali and occurs after much delay. Consolidation behaviour of rectorite in 1N and 4N alkali solutions has been studied in two ways: 1). Loading without waiting for the second stage of swelling to occur, as in standard consolidation procedure and 2). Loading after completion of second stage of swelling which is occurring after considerable delay as explained earlier. Normally one would initiate loading after equilibrium is reached at the end of first stage of swelling and second stage of swelling is not suspected. As there is no second stage of swelling with 1N solutions, these two types of consolidation tests produced the same results. Abnormal rebound is observed during unloading with 4N solution in which loading cycle is initiated without waiting for second stage of swelling to complete. It is interesting to note that while the liquid limit of soil decreased with increase in the concentration of alkali solution, the swelling increased. The testing procedure and period of interaction as well as the concentration of alkali solution during the test in these two tests are different. The effects of alkali solution are more severe in case of liquid limit because of thorough mixing and consequent effective reaction during testing. Similarly, the volume changes in soil that has already reacted with 4N alkali solution when exposed to further to alkali contamination are considerably less compared to uncontaminated soil exposed to fresh contamination. The shear strength of soil treated with 4N-alkali solution has increased particularly after long period of interaction. This indicates that the soil after mineralogical changes posses good strength. Chapter 5 presents the effect of alkali and salt solutions on the physico chemical and geotechnical properties of component minerals of mixed layered illite/smectite. For this study, commercially obtained montmorillonite (bentonite), naturally occurring black soil containing montmorillonite and commercially pure illite are used. It was observed that montmorillonite alkali reactions would not produce significant mineralogical changes where as illite is dissociated into smectite with the formation of potassium silicate by the interaction of released potassium with soluble silica. This confirms that the ultimate products of rectorite with alkali solutions would be smectite and compounds of potassium. In the absence of mineralogical alterations the liquid limit of montmorillonite decreases due to suppression of diffuse double layer thickness due to dominating influence of alkali solutions on this highly active clay. However a small increase in liquid limit is observed in illite with alkali solutions. Thus the net effect of alkali on rectorite is to decrease the liquid limit with increase in alkali concentration. While the free swell and oedometer swelling of montmorillonite generally decreases with increase in the alkali concentration, they increase in illite. However, in both the minerals the swelling occurs only in one phase. Thus the second phase of swelling that has been observed in rectorite can be attributed to delayed swelling of montmorillonite that has been released by the attack of alkali on rectorite. The behaviour of black soil containing mixed layer mineral contaminated in the field and laboratory by leaking Bayer's spent liquor in an alumina extraction plant has been studied in Chapter 6. The Atterberg limits of the samples treated with liquor are reduced and sediment volume increased. Similarly the swelling at seating load in consolidation test is higher in sample compacted with water and inundated with liquor. X-ray diffraction studies showed that the mineralogical changes are similar to those occurred with 4N caustic alkali solution. The mineralogical and micro structural changes in the soil samples that are contaminated by leaked spent liquor in the field are relatively more marked. Also the behavior of highly montmorillonite clay, bentonite, has been studied contaminated with liquor in the laboratory. The study on the effect of high concentrated alkali solutions on montmorillonite can be useful to study the effect of interaction on the dissociated montmorillonite. These studies are helpful to suggest some possible remedial measures to control the adverse effect of alkali on soils. Possible Remedial schemes that can be adopted before and after contamination of the soil to control the adverse effect of alkali solutions on the black cotton soil containing mixed layered mineral are listed and their effectiveness examined in Chapter 7. The suggested remedial measures include flushing with water to dilute the effect of alkali, neutralisation with dilute hydrochloric acid, stabilisation of soil with lime and calcium chloride and use of impervious membrane to separate the foundation soil from alkali solution. The effectiveness of different measures as well as the method of their application has been described. Efforts are made to understand the mechanism of remedial action. Consolidation tests conducted on soil contaminated with 4N alkali solution and inundated with water showed increased swelling due to dilution of the alkali concentration. Though the swelling of contaminated soil can be controlled by passing dilute hydrochloric acid (1N), the method is not advocated as it can lead to ground water contamination. Mixing the soil with solutions containing up to 5% by weight of calcium compound in water could not prevent the alkali induced heave in the long run when inundated with 4N alkali solution. This was due to dissolution of silica by the strong alkali solutions and formation of swelling compounds such as sodium aluminium silicate hydroxide hydrate (SASH). The formation of sodium aluminates occurred only when the alkali solution contained alumina or soil contained calcium compounds. There are no significant variations in the effects of calcium chloride or calcium hydroxide on contaminated soil. Replacing the foundation soil with soil thoroughly contaminated with 4N alkali solutions and controlling the migration of contaminants into the foundation soil using high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geosynthetic membranes can be an effective measure to control the heaving in alkali contaminated foundation soil containing interstratified illite – smectite. Summary and the major conclusions of the thesis are presented in Chapter 8.

Le devenir des déchets constitue aujourd'hui un enjeu important. L'argile compactée, et plus particulièrement la smectite, est le matériau traditionnel utilisé comme barrière passive en fond de site de stockage. Les lixiviats de déchets sont notamment caractérisés par une importante concentration en ions ammonium et par la présence de nombreuses molécules organiques. Pour limiter la pollution, la barrière doit répondre à deux critères importants : la rétention de polluants et l'imperméabilité. Cette étude s'est intéressée aux interactions entre une montmorillonite préalablement échangée NH4 + et des molécules à courtes chaînes caractéristiques de celles présentes dans les lixiviats. Le travail de thèse a d'abord montré que la présence d'ammonium en cation interfoliaire réduit les capacités d'hydratation de la smectite SWy-2(NH4). L'étude des interactions en méthode " batch " a montré que les acides acétique et formique, l'acétonitrile, le dichlorométhane, le MTBE, le benzène, l'acétone et l'éthanol ne sont pas ou sont très faiblement retenus sur l'argile ammoniée. Au contraire, les acides chloroacétique et oxalique, l'aniline, le formamide et le phénol se fixent selon différents mécanismes. Les interactions avec les acides carboxyliques mettent aussi en évidence une légère dissolution de l'argile et un échange cationique de NH4 + par H3O+ et Al3+, dépendant en particulier de la granulométrie. L'étude de la perméabilité des barrières géochimiques en oedométrie a permis de montrer que l'argile ammoniée et les argiles polluées par des molécules présentent une conductivité hydraulique plus élevée, qui réduit fortement l'efficacité de la barrière.

Materiais nanoestruturados têm recebido destaque na comunidade científica, destacando-se, dentre eles, os nanocompósitos à base de polímeros e argila. Quando esses materiais são obtidos no estado líquido, ressalta-se também o uso de água em substituição a solventes orgânicos, devido a questões ambientais. Neste trabalho foram sintetizadas dispersões aquosas à base de poliuretanos (WPUs) e argila hidrofílica do tipo montimorilonita (MMT) de natureza sódica, com o objetivo de avaliar as propriedades de barreira a gases conferidas pela presença de argila e pela variação nas proporções entre os segmentos flexíveis poli(glicol propilênico) (PPG) e o copolímero em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG). Os monômeros empregados na síntese foram: poli(glicol propilênico) (PPG); copolímero em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG), com teor de 7% de EG; ácido dimetilolpropiônico (DMPA), diisocianato de isoforona (IPDI) e etilenodiamina (EDA), como extensor de cadeia. Foram sintetizadas dispersões aquosas com e sem a presença de argila, fixando-se a razão entre o número de equivalentes-grama de grupos diisocianato e hidroxila (razão NCO/OH) em 1,5. Nas formulações foi variado também o teor de argila em relação à massa de prepolímero em 0,5% e 1%. Foi adicionada uma etapa de agitação adicional com dispersor Turrax em algumas formulações. A argila foi previamente deslaminada em água deionizada e incorporada à formulação na etapa da dispersão do prepolímero. As dispersões foram avaliadas, quanto ao teor de sólidos totais, tamanho médio de partícula e viscosidade aparente. Os filmes vazados a partir das dispersões foram caracterizados por espectrometria na região do infravermelho (FTIR) e permeabilidade ao CO2. A resistência térmica dos filmes foi determinada por termogravimetria (TG). Foram observadas modificações nas propriedades dos filmes obtidos com a inserção da argila e com a variação no teor de segmentos à base de poli(glicol etilênico). A inserção da argila promoveu uma melhoria na resistência térmica das membranas bem como uma redução na permeabilidade das mesmas. Foi observado um aumento na permeabilidade das membranas obtidas a partir das formulações com maior percentual de copolímero (EG-b-PG), com e sem argila. / Nanostructured materials have been receiving increasing attention of scientific community, especially systems of nanocomposites based on polymer and clay. These materials can be obtained in aqueous state and the use of water, replacing organic solvents, is an important line of research due to environmental issues. In this work, dispersions based on waterbone polyurethanes and sodic hydrophilic clay montmorillonite (MMT) were synthesized, in order to evaluate the possible formation of nanocomposites (NWPUs). The monomers employed in the synthesis were: poly (propylene glycol) (PPG), block copolymer based on poly (ethylene glycol) and poly (propylene glycol) (EG-b-PG), containing 7% ethylene glycol; dimethylolpropionic acid (DMPA); isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI); and ethylenediamine (EDA) as chain extender. Aqueous dispersions with and without clay were synthesized by fixing the ratio between the equivalent-grams of diisocyanate and hydroxyl groups (NCO/OH ratio) in 1.5. The clay content also varied from 0.5% to 1% related to prepolymer initial mass. An additional stirring step with Turrax disperser was made in some formulations. The clay was previously delaminated in deionized water and incorporated at prepolymer dispersion in water-addition step. The dispersions were then evaluated in terms of solids content, particle size and apparent viscosity. The films cast from dispersions were characterized by infrared spectrometry (FTIR), thermogravimetry (TG) and permeability to CO2. Cast films were obtained and the gas barrier properties imparted by the clay were analyzed as well as the influence of poly (ethylene glycol) segments content. The insertion of clay imparted an improvement in thermal resistance properties and a decrease in membrane permeability. It was also observed an increase in permeability to CO2 of membranes obtained from formulations containing the higher amount of copolymer (EG-b-PG), independent of clay content.

This work studied the rheological and mechanical properties of polyamide 12 modified montmorillonite clays and bentonita (the organo-modified commercial montmorillonite and a bentonite modified by various routes. Two polyamides 12 were used for the polyamide matrix, a virgin and another reprocessed. The polyamide 12 reprocessed was derived from tailings lines of fluid transport in automotive vehicles. Ten different compositions were prepared in single-screw extruder, and subsequently molded test specimens by injection. For formulations reprocessed polyamide 12, were added 5 to 7 wt.% of a commercial organo-modified montmorillonite ( I44P ) and the virgin polyamide 12 , 3 and 5 wt.%. For virgin polyamide matrix, also formulations were studied with 3 and 5% by weight of bentonite treated with Agent Titanate. The nanocomposite structure formation was evaluated by X-ray diffraction. For all developed formulations, mechanical and rheological tests, and their results were correlated performed: polyamide matrices, the content and the treatments of the clays. Clay dispersion and morphology of the fracture surface were analyzed by SEM. The analysis results showed distinct mechanical and rheological behaviors depending on the type of matrix, the degree of dispersion of clay, content and type of treatment of clays. There was formation of nanocomposites for polyamide 12 modified with I44P clay and composites for polyamide 12 modified bentonite. The rheological properties confirm the increase of the elastic properties of the nanocomposites due to the restriction to macromolecular mobility. The addition of organophilic commercial montmorillonite (I44P) promoted the increased stiffness of the nanocomposites without significant loss of toughness. / Este trabalho estudou as propriedades reológicas e mecânicas de poliamida 12 modificadas com montmorilonitas, sendo uma montmorilonita organofilica comercial (I44P) e montmorilonita sódica (bentonita) modificada por diversas rotas. Para a matriz de poliamida, foram utilizadas duas poliamidas 12, sendo uma virgem e a outra reprocessada oriunda de rejeito de linhas de transporte de fluídos em veículos automotores. Foram preparadas dez composições diferentes em extrusora monorrosca e, posteriormente, moldados corpos de prova por injeção. Para as formulações de poliamida 12 reprocessada, foram adicionados 5 e 7% em massa de montmorilonita organofílica comercial e para a poliamida 12 virgem, 3 e 5%. Para esta mesma matriz de poliamida virgem, também foram estudadas formulações com 3 e 5% em massa das bentonitas tratadas com agente titanato. A formação de estrutura de nanocompósitos foi avaliada por difração de raios-X. Para todas as formulações desenvolvidas, foram realizados ensaios mecânicos e reológicos, e seus resultados correlacionados com: as matrizes de poliamida, o teor e os tratamentos das argilas. A dispersão da argila e a morfologia da superfície de fratura foram avaliadas por MEV. Os resultados das análises mostraram comportamentos mecânicos e reológicos distintos em função do tipo de matriz, grau de dispersão das argilas, o teor e o tipo de tratamento das argilas. Houve formação de nanocompósitos para poliamida 12 modificada com a argila I44P e de compósitos para poliamida 12 modificada com bentonitas. As propriedades reológicas confirmam o aumento das propriedades elásticas dos nanocompósitos devido à restrição a mobilidade macromolecular. A adição da montmorilonita organofilica comercial (I44P) promoveu o aumento da rigidez dos nanocompósitos sem perdas significativas da tenacidade.