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The present program of research explored the impact of performance-contingent rewards on perceived autonomy and intrinsic motivation. Four studies sought to clarify the debate between behaviorist (Eisenberger and Cameron, 1996; Eisenberger, Pierce, and Cameron, 1999; Eisenberger, Rhoades, and Cameron, 1999) and the social cognitive researchers (Deci & Ryan, 1980, 1985; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999) regarding the impact of such incentives on perceived autonomy. Two experimental studies (Studies 1 and 2) examined this relationship among college students and elementary school children. Results revealed an undermining effect of performance-contingent rewards on participants' affective experience of autonomy (enhanced feelings of pressure and tension). No significant results were found on intrinsic motivation for college students, whereas for elementary school children, rewards increased enjoyment for the target activity. / Two field-based quasi-experimental studies (Studies 3 and 4) were designed to explore the impact of performance-contingent rewards in an organizational setting. Both studies differentiated between private sector workers, who received a merit-based salary (performance-reward expectancy) and workers from the public sector who received a salary based on seniority (no performance-reward expectancy). Study 3 replicated the previous findings by demonstrating that that performance-reward expectancy undermined workers perceived autonomy. Study 4 extended these results by revealing that the presence of performance contingent reward programs in organizations undermined employees' work satisfaction and relatedness. Such incentives also had a tendency to reduce workers' adjustment to retirement.

The government uses a range of mechanisms to mitigate market failure in the provision of health care in the United Kingdom. Explicit financial incentives are increasingly used within the UK. However, there is some evidence that providing explicit incentives may not have the desired effect on the supply of healthcare as healthcare professionals are intrinsically motivated. This thesis reviews the literature defining and measuring intrinsic motivation in economics. It then presents a developed theoretical model of work motivation among healthcare providers which informs the empirical analysis. This thesis estimates four empirical applications to test the theoretical model of intrinsic motivation. Two applications use the British Quarterly Labour Force Survey data to examine: 1) differences in the motivation structure of employees in caring public sector from employees in other employment sectors, 2) the impact of income and employment sector on intrinsic motivation, and 3) the reason for the high levels of intrinsic motivation for employees in the caring public sector. The other two empirical works explore how the changes of financial incentives under Quality and Outcomes Framework have affected Scottish General Practitioners’ intrinsic motivation. The findings of this thesis have important policy implications. Mainly, they suggest that policy makers should be careful when using financial incentives to motivate healthcare professionals, as the unintended impact on intrinsic motivation may undermine the effectiveness of the policy.

Engaging in physical activity is an important aspect of living a healthy lifestyle. Approximately 60% of adults do not participate in regular physical activity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [U.S. DHHS],1996), and rates of physical activity are declining (Brownson, Boehmer, & Luke, 2005). An understanding of motivation toward physical activity may aid in improving participation rates of physical activity. The purpose of the present study was to determine if there were differences in motivation toward physical activity among Physical Education majors and Non-Physical Education majors. Participants were 150 undergraduate students enrolled in a Physical Education: Fitness/Wellness (PEFWL) course and/or Physical Education: Professional (PEP) 161 — Foundations and Principles of Physical Education (PEP 161). Participants completed the Motivation for Physical Activities Measure-Revised (MPAM-R) and a series of Fitness Profile Tests. Results revealed there were no significant differences for motivation on any factor of the MPAM-R between Physical Education majors and Non-Physical Education majors. In addition, no significant differences were determined for Gender. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of counseling on the energy commitments of clients. Other purposes of the research were to examine the differences in energy commitment and its various components in relation to the success of counseling, to evaluate the feasibility of using energy commitment theory as a means for measuring change as a result of counseling, and to investigate factors which might produce change in man's energy commitments.The theoretical framework used to study the effect of counseling on clients' energy commitments was formulated by Hollis and Hollis. Energy commitment was defined as the condition of consigning energy to be used in facilitating action in the future. In this context, energy commitment possesses three major components--direction, thrust, and flexibility. Direction was divided into the three separate categories of people, objects, and ideas; while thrust was divided into the three separate categories of priority, force, and amount.The research design of the study required that the participating clients submit to specific measurements prior to counseling, undergo counseling, and submit to specific measurements after counseling. In all, twenty-one clients completed this sequence during the eight week time period. In terms of specific criteria for selection, two qualifications were established. All subjects were at least eighteen years of age and were willing to participate on a voluntary basis. In total, nine null hypotheses were investigated at the .05 level of significance. Six of the null hypotheses pertained to the effect of counseling on clients' energy commitments, while three of the null hypotheses pertained to the degree of association between various energy commitment measurements and various measurements of counseling success. The six hypotheses pertaining to the effect of counseling on clients' energy commitments were evaluated by three different statistical treatments: the Friedman two-way analysis of variance by ranks, the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test, and the Chi Square. The three remaining hypotheses were evaluated by Chi Square and contingency coefficients.The instruments used to determine change, if any, in clients' energy commitments were the Structured Interview Guide (SIG) and the Interview Rating Sheet (IRS). In terms of the degree of counseling success, three measurements were employed. First, the Personal Orientation Inventor, (POI) by Everett Shostrom was used to determine change, if any in the clients' level of self-actualization. Second, the Client Expectancy Inventory (CEI) and the Inventory of Fulfillment of Client's Expectancy (IFCE) were employed to measure counseling success in terms of counseling expectancy and fulfillment of counseling expectancy. The CEI and the IFCE were developed by the author and Joseph Hollis specifically for the present study. The theoretical framework for both instruments was developed after reviewing the literature pertaining to the goals of counseling and clients' expectations of counseling. Third, the researcher employed ratings of counseling success obtained from the participating counselors. In this respect, the researcher constructed the Counselor's Rating of Counseling, Success (CRCS) for this purpose.Two major conclusions were made from an analysis of the data. First, the counseling process produces significant change in the way an individual approaches his commitments, but the actual energy commitments remain essentially the same. Second, the findings concerned with the degree of association between energy commitment change and measurements of counseling success were not significantly related. Hence, the conclusion was made that energy commitment variables are not to any measureable degree assessing the same change criteria as those employed to measure counseling success.Additional data were analyzed pertaining to the correlation between client and counselor ratings of the counseling experience. The obtained Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was not significant at the .05 level of probability. However, the difference between the means of the two groups was significant at the .05 level. Based on the preceding data, the conclusion was made that clients tend to rate the counseling experience more successful than their respective counselors.

The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in energy commitments between a group of more actualized individuals and a group of less actualized individuals. Level of self-actualization was determined by means of the Personal Orientation Inventory by Everett Shostrum and energy commitment level was assessed by means of an individual interview developed by Hollis and Hollis. The study was an investigation along lines of theory in energy commitment by Hollis and Hollis.Energy commitment as defined in this study is the planned use of time and energy directed toward the maintenance or accomplishment of some level of desired action or feeling. Energy commitment is divided into three general categories: direction, strength (thrust), and flexibility. The direction category was subdivided into three subcategories: people, objects, and ideas. Further subdivision of the major category of thrust yields the categories of priority of commitment, force of commitment, and amount of energy necessary for maintenance of commitment.The population selected to be inventoried by the Personal Orientation Inventory was required to be female, thirty years old or less, a senior at Ball State University, caucasian, unmarried, Indiana resident, and not engaged in student teaching or internship during the quarter of the study. One hundred fifty students who met the criteria were inventoried to establish a range of actualization scores. The actualization score was a combination of inner directed scale and time competence scale raw scores from the POI. The students with the highest twenty-five scores were known as the more actualized group and students with the lowest twenty-five scores were known as the less actualized group. Each of the fifty individuals was assessed by means of a standardized individual interview to determine her energy commitments.Eight hypotheses were proposed relating to the difference between groups based upon direction of the commitments, force of the commitments, amount of energy required to maintain the commitments, flexibility of the commitments, and hypothetical energy commitments.The treatment of the data included use of t-Tests to compare the mean values of each group on sub-categories, chi square in assessing significance of differences in frequencies, and subjective observation of differences in summaries of results.No differences which could be labeled significant were found when the direction, force, amount, and flexibility categories of the two groups were compared. The two groups differed in the events which could hypothetically interfere with energy commitments. No significant difference was found in the conditions which kept each individual from committing hypothetical energies. Both groups saw the antecedents which brought about their energy commitments similarly. When boundaries and restrictions were removed which would limit the individual, the groups were very dissimilar in the hypothetical energy commitments identified.None of the t-Test and chi square results were statistically significant at the .05 level. However, a thread of similarity was maintained in all categories in the difference between the two groups and their commitments to objects when the means of groups were compared on commitment priority, force, amount of energy required to maintain the commitment, and flexibility. This was a finding which was neither hypothesized nor expected in the comparatively large amount observed. This finding led the investigator to indicate the need for a measure of energy commitment of greater refinement with which the nature of the observed differences could be subjected to closer scrutiny.

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Typescript. / Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii, 1967. / Bibliography: leaves [179]-183. / iii, 183 l

The senior travel market has become an increasingly important area of interest to the tourism industry for more than a decade due to its market size and potential growth. The trends toward early retirement, increased number of leisure years, active lifestyles, longevity, and time flexibility after retirement make the elderly an attractive market for the tourism industry. In the Thai tourism industry, the Japanese senior travel market is one of the important overseas senior segments. However, the number of the Japanese senior arrivals to Thailand is relatively small when compared to the overall Japanese seniors' outbound travel market. In order to increase market share and to attract more of them to Thailand, it is important to learn and understand their travel motivations for visiting Thailand. Therefore, this study has employed the theory of push and pull motivations to investigate travel motivations of Japanese senior travellers to Thailand. / Thesis (DBA(DoctorateofBusinessAdministration))--University of South Australia, 2007.