Cenário clínico: A síndrome dolorosa miofascial (SDM) pode ser incapacitante e desafiadora terapeuticamente, devido à ineficácia dos tratamentos convencionais para a dor. Objetivos: O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a eficácia da estimulação intramuscular (EIM) na redução da dor e melhora da saúde física e mental de pacientes com SDM. Conduzimos um ensaio clínico randomizado controlado em 60 mulheres, com idades entre 20 e 40 anos, que foram randomizadas para receber EIM, infiltração com lidocaína e falsa eletroneuroestimulação transcutânea (TENS-placebo), duas vezes por semana, durante 4 semanas. Resultados: A redução do percentual de alívio de dor observada na escala análogo-visual de dor (EAVD) durante a primeira semana após o final do tratamento no grupo TENS-placebo foi de 14,01 [intervalo de confiança (IC) 95%; 2,89 a 25,12], o que foi significativamente menor em comparação com o observado nos grupos de infiltração com lidocaína e de EIM, de 43,86% [IC 95%; 26,64 a 61,08] e de 49,74% (IC 95%, 28,95 a 70,54), respectivamente. O tamanho do efeito (TE) sobre a dor, na comparação de TENS-placebo com a EIM e infiltração com lidocaína foi de 1,48 [IC 95%; 0,76 a 2,19] e de 1,20 [0,43 a 1,40], respectivamente. O tamanho do efeito (TE) sobre a dor, na comparação de TENS-placebo com a EIM e infiltração com lidocaína foi de 1,48 [IC 95%; 0,76 a 2,19] e de 1,20 [0,43 a 1,40], respectivamente. A EIM melhorou significativamente os escores da saúde física e mental e o limiar de dor à pressão (LDP). Valores baixos do LDP, antes do tratamento, preveem uma redução do risco de 43% para apresentar um TE pequeno/moderado na dor no grupo da EIM e atitudes positivas, em todas intervenções, aumentaram a probabilidade para uma redução significante na intensidade da dor relatada.. Conclusões: A EIM foi mais efetiva do que o TENS-placebo e pelo menos equivalente à infiltração com lidocaína no tratamento da SDM e na melhora dos sintomas depressivos e da saúde física e mental. / Background: Myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) can be disabling and therapeutically challenging, because of the inefficacy of traditional pain treatment. Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of intramuscular stimulation (IMS) in reducing pain and improving physical and mental health in patientes with MPS. Methods: We conducted a controlled trial in 60 females, aged 20 to 40 years, where the participants were randomized to receive IMS, lidocaine infiltration or TENS-placebo twice a week for 4 weeks. Results: The reduction in the percent pain on a VAS (Visual Analogue-Scale) after the end of the first week of treatment in the TENSplacebo group was 14.01 [95% confidence interval (CI); 2.89 to 25.12], which was significantly lower than for the lidocaine infiltration and IMS groups, which reported 43.86% [95% CI; 26.64 to 61.08] and 49.74 % (95% CI, 28.95 to 70.54), respectively. The ES (effect size) on pain comparing TENS-placebo vs. IMS and TENS-placebo vs. lidocaine-infiltration were 1.48 [95% CI; 0.76 to 2.19] and 1.20 [0.43 to 1.40], respectively. IMS significantly improved the mental and physical health scores and the PPT. Lower PPT values pretreatment predicted a reduction of the risk by 43% of the small/moderate ES in terms of pain in the IMS group and positive attitudes, in all interventions, improved the probability a significant reduction in current pain intensity. Conclusions: IMS was more effective than TENS-placebo and at least equivalent to lidocaine infiltration in treating MPS and improving physical and mental health.

M.Tech. / Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate whether needling active trigger points in the upper fibres of the trapezius muscle, using myofascial deep dry needling versus superficial dry needling is effective in the treatment of Trapezius Myofascial Pain Syndrome. Method: Forty participants underwent a general screening to determine whether they have active myofascial trigger points in the upper fibres of the Trapezius muscle. The general screening was done by using a pincer grip technique to find the active trigger point within the trapezius. If the pincer grip revealed that there were active trigger points, the participant was suitable for this study. Each filled in a neck disability index and a pain rating scale, with algometer readings taken Pre and Post-treatment on visit 1 to visit 4. Algometer readings were taken at the active trigger point Pre and Post-treatment (subjective data). Each participant received either myofascial deep dry needling or superficial dry needling to the active trigger point. After the two week trial, the participants had to fill out a neck disability index and a pain rating scale for a second time in order to objectively measure the participants pain. Results: The results were interpreted by Statkon at the University of Johannesburg. The data was analysed using the Mann Whitney test and the Friedman test. According to the tests, both groups improved significantly in both the objective and subjective measurements over the four visits. Overall, the mean values for both the myofascial deep dry needling group and the superficial dry needling group were P = 0.001. The superficial dry needling group showed a further increase over a short term period in the objective and subjective measurements over each visit. Conclusion: Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that both myofascial deep dry needling and superficial dry needling is effective and can be used in the treatment of Trapezius Myofascial Pain Syndrome. This study further indicated that superficial dry needling was shown to be a significantly effective treatment short term when compared to that of myofascial deep dry needling of active trigger points in the upper fibres of the Trapezius muscle

Magister Scientiae Dentium - MSc(Dent) / The objective of the study was to compare pain and functional limitation of temporomandibular myalgia patients, before and after low-level-laser treatment (LLLT).This was a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, triple-blinded clinical study. Patients diagnosed with temporomandibular myalgia according to the DC/TMD protocol were recruited from the TMD clinic of the Mitchell’s Plain Oral Health Centre. Treatment was performed using diode laser (Sirolaser, Dentsply Sirona). The 3 regions of the masseter and temporalis muscles were treated bilaterally with a dose of 8J/cm2 per region. Pain and function were assessed using pain-free opening, numeric rating scales (NRS), Characteristic Pain Intensity Scores (CPIS), Interference Score (IS), and Jaw Functional Limitation Scale (JFLS) at the first and last LLLT and at 4-week recall (intervals 1, 2, 3). Statistical analysis was done by means of explorative categorical principal and multivariate interdependent analysis.

Dissertation submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Masters Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, 2011. / Background: Myofascial pain is a disorder, characterized by the presence of trigger points (MTrP). It is recognised by unique features which include a tender point in a taut band of muscle, a local twitch response (LTR), a characteristic referred pain pattern, and the reproduction of the patient’s usual pain upon examination. A debate exists as to the precise diagnostic criteria used in identifying trigger points. This has hampered the standardized assessment and treatment of Myofascial Pain Syndrome and has led to contradictory findings being reported by various authors due to the lack of a reliable diagnostic tool. Objectives: The first objective was to determine the inter-examiner reliability of palpation of MTrPs in the trapezius and gluteus medius muscles. The second objective was to determine whether training and standardization in palpation techniques would improve inter-examiner reliability of palpation of MTrPs. Methods: This study was designed as a quantitative pre and post intervention interexaminer reliability study. Three examiners (one qualified Chiropractor, one senior chiropractic intern from the CDC and the researcher) were used to examine sixty patients (thirty symptomatic and thirty asymptomatic) for MTrPs. This study was conducted in two phases. During the myofascial examination of patients examiners were required to determine whether a MTrP was present or absent, differentiate whether the MTrP was active or latent and determine the presence or absence of the five characteristics of MTrP (tender point in a taut band of muscle, a local twitch response (LTR), a pain characteristic referred pain pattern, the reproduction of the patient’s usual pain and a jump sign) however, in phase one the researchers were blinded to the characteristics being investigated. Subsequent to phase one, examiners had to attend two, one hour discussion sessions to reduce individual variation in the application of palpation techniques. Results: Inter-examiner reliability was assessed using Fleiss Kappa statistic, percentage agreement and confidence intervals. The results show that three examiners are able to attain acceptable agreement in the palpation of MTrPs, since the features (described above) were shown to improve considerably in phase two after the training session in which standardization of techniques was emphasized. Conclusion: This study provides preliminary evidence that MTrP palpation is reliable and therefore, useful diagnostic tool in the identification of MTrPs and the diagnosis of Myofascial Pain Syndrome.

A síndrome dolorosa miofascial (SDM) é uma disfunção musculoesquelética não articular caracterizada por pontos-gatilho miofasciais. Estes pontos, identificados por meio da palpação, são descritos como bandas tensas na fibra muscular, podendo apresentar dor referida à compressão. Sabe-se que os pontos-gatilho miofasciais provocam hiperatividade simpática regional de temperatura local devido à atividade vasoconstritora cutânea. Para documentação objetiva por imagem desta alteração funcional, a termografia tem sido proposta como método auxiliar diagnóstico. O objetivo deste estudo foi correlacionar os exames clínico e termográfico dos pontos-gatilho nos músculos da mastigação masseter e temporal parte anterior. A amostra constituiu-se por 26 mulheres voluntárias com 41 ± 15 anos. Os resultados demonstraram correlação diretamente proporcional entre algometria e termografia na avaliação do ponto-gatilho miofascial, onde, quanto menor a força aplicada, menor a temperatura local (p<0,001). As áreas com dor referida apresentaram níveis de limiar de dor à pressão (1.28±0.45 kgf) menores quando comparados às áreas de dor local (1.73±0,59 kgf; p<0.001). Sendo assim, a imagem termográfica de um ponto-gatilho apresentou-se hiporradiante quando comparada à região de ausência de ponto-gatilho (&#916;T>0,4ºC; p<0.001). Além disso, a avaliação termográfica dos pontos-gatilho nos músculos masseter e temporal pelo gradiente térmico (&#916;T e &#916;&#952;) apresentou maior sensibilidade e especificidade em comparação com a temperatura absoluta (T), mesmo quando corrigidos estes valores para a temperatura ambiente e temperatura timpânica da voluntária durante o exame (&#952;). A termografia isoladamente identificou pontos-gatilho com sensibilidade de 62,5% e especificidade de 71,31%. Os autores concluíram que a termografia é um método de imagem não invasivo, com potencial de identificação de pontos-gatilho miofasciais na região facial. / Myofascial pain syndrome is a myalgic dysfunction characterized by myofascial trigger points (MTP). The taut band is a constant feature of a trigger point characterized by referred pain when stimulated. It is known that the myofascial trigger points cause regional sympathetic hyperactivity in local temperature due to the cutaneous vasoconstrictor activity. For detection of functional changes, thermography may be used as an auxiliary diagnostic imaging. The aim of this study was to correlate clinical and thermographic myofascial trigger points in the masticatory muscles masseter and temporalis. Twenty six women volunteers were included, having a mean age of 41 ± 15 years. The results showed directly proportional relationship by algometry and thermography in the assessment of MTP, where smaller the force applied, lower the local temperature will be (p<0.001). Moreover, when the soreness was evaluated and local vasomotor response, the temperature decreases as the worst local situation. PPT (pressure pain threshold) levels measured at the points of referred pain in MTP (1.28±0.45 kgf) were significantly lower than the areas of local pain in MTP (1.73±0,59 kgf; p<0.001). Thus, the thermographic image of a MTP presented colder than the area without trigger point (&#916;T>0,4ºC; p<0.001). In the thermographic assessment of MTP in the masseter and temporalis muscles, the results suggest that the parameters of thermal asymmetry (&#916;T and &#916;&#952;) show greater sensitivity and specificity in comparison to local absolute temperature values (T), even when corrected for the volunteer\'s core temperature and the temperature of the room during the exam (&#952;). Thermography can identify trigger points (referred pain) with sensitivity of 62,50% and specificity of 71,31%. The authors concluded that thermography is a noninvasive imaging method with potential for screening patients with MTP in the facial region.

Introdução: Níveis elevados de ansiedade têm sido associados com intensidade e comportamento da dor em pacientes com dores aguda e crônica. Foi observado, em indíviduos com síndrome dolorosa miofascial (SDM), que o estresse e a ansiedade aumentam a predisposição para o desenvolvimento de pontos-gatilhos miofasciais. Adicionalmente a isto, existe a tendência do indivíduo experimentar emoções negativas em situações de estresse (neuroticismo), característica de personalidade associada ao traço de personalidade, que pode influenciar negativamente na experiência de dor. Indivíduos com alta ansiedade-traço são geralmente hipersensíveis a estímulos e psicologicamente mais reativos. É concebível supôr a coexistência de alteração na excitabilidade cortical, entre dor crônica e ansiedade nestes pacientes. Para melhorar a compreensão dos mecanismos centrais relacionados à ansiedade e à dor crônica, avaliou-se os parâmetros de excitabilidade cortical, usando estimulação magnética transcraniana (EMT), pulso único e pareado. Nossa hipótese é que a excitabilidade corticoespinhal seja modulada pela ansiedade favorecendo a perda de influxo inibitório descendente. Objetivos: O presente estudo teve como objetivo responder a três perguntas relacionadas à síndrome dolorosa miofascial (SDM): 1) A excitabilidade do córtex motor está relacionada com a ansiedade-traço? 2) A ansiedade-traço modula alterações da excitabilidade corticoespinhal, após dor evocada pelo Quantitative Sensory Testing (QST)? 3) A ansiedade-traço prevê resposta à dor evocada pelo QST, se receber simultaneamente um estímulo heterotópico [Conditioned Pain Modulation (CPM)]? Pacientes e métodos: Foram incluídas mulheres com SDM (n = 47) e controles saudáveis (n = 11), com idade entre 19 e 65 anos. A excitabilidade do córtex motor foi avaliada pela EMT, e a ansiedade foi avaliada com base no Inventário de Ansiedade Traço-Estado (IDATE). A incapacidade relacionada à dor foi avaliada pelo perfil da escala de dor crônica para a população brasileira (B:PCP:S), e as medidas psicofísicas da dor foram medidas pelo QST e CPM. Resultados: Nas pacientes, a ansiedade-traço foi positivamente correlacionada com a facilitação intracortical (FIC) no baseline e após a dor evocada pelo QST (β = 0,05 e β = 0,04, respectivamente) e negativamente relacionada com o período de silêncio cortical (PSC) no baseline e após a dor evocada pelo QST (β = -1,17 e β = -1,23, respectivamente) (P <0,05 para todas as comparações). Após dor evocada pelo QST, a incapacidade relacionada à dor crônica foi positivamente correlacionada com a FIC (β = 0,02) (P <0,05). Os escores de dor durante o CPM foram positivamente correlacionados com a ansiedadetraço, quando a incapacidade relacionada à dor crônica foi igualmente alta (β = 0,39, P = 0,02). A excitabilidade cortical das controles saudáveis permaneceu inalterada após o QST. Conclusões: Estes resultados sugerem que, na SDM, o desequilíbrio entre os sistemas excitatórios e inibitórios descendentes do trato corticoespinhal está associado concomitantemente a maiores níveis de ansiedade-traço e maiores níveis de incapacidade funcional ocasionados pela dor crônica. / Background: High levels of anxiety have been associated with the intensity and pain behavior in patients with acute and chronic pain. It was observed that in subjects with myofascial pain (SDM), stress and anxiety syndrome increase the predisposition for the development of myofascial trigger points. In addition to this, there is a tendency of individuals to experience negative emotions in stressful situations (neuroticism), personality characteristic associated with trait personality that may negatively influence in the experience of pain. Individuals with higher trait anxiety are usually hypersensitive to stimuli and more psychologically reactive. It is conceivable to assume the co-existence of change in cortical excitability, chronic pain and anxiety, in these patients. To improve the understanding of the central mechanisms related to anxiety and chronic pain, we assessed cortical excitability parameters by single and paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). We hypothesize that corticospinal excitability is modulated by anxiety favoring loss of descendent inhibitory influx. Objectives: This study aimed to answer three questions related to chronic myofascial pain syndrome (MPS): 1) Is the motor cortex excitability, as assessed by transcranial magnetic stimulation parameters (TMS), related to state-trait anxiety? 2) Does anxiety modulate corticospinal excitability changes after evoked pain by Quantitative Sensory Testing (QST)? 3) Does the state-trait anxiety predict the response to pain evoked by QST if simultaneously receiving a heterotopic stimulus [Conditional Pain Modulation (CPM)]? Patient and methods: We included females with chronic MPS (n=47) and healthy controls (n=11), aged from 19 to 65 years. Motor cortex excitability was assessed by TMS, and anxiety was assessed based on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The disability related to pain (DRP) was assessed by the Profile of Chronic Pain scale for the Brazilian population (B:PCP:S), and the psychophysical pain measurements were measured by the QST and CPM. Results: In patients, trait-anxiety was positively correlated to intracortical facilitation (ICF) at baseline and after QST evoked pain (β= 0.05 and β= 0.04, respectively) and negatively correlated to the cortical silent period (CSP) (β= -1.17 and β= -1.23, respectively) (P <0.05 for all comparisons). After QST evoked pain, the DRP was positively correlated to ICF (β= 0.02) (P<0.05). Pain scores during CPM were positively correlated with trait-anxiety when it was concurrently with high DRP (β= 0.39; P= 0.02). Controls’cortical excitability remained unchanged after QST. Conclusions: These findings suggest that, in chronic MPS, the imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory descending systems of the corticospinal tract is associated with higher trait-anxiety concurrent with higher DRP.

Introdução: Embora a completa fisiopatologia da SDM permaneça desconhecida, evidências sugerem que na dor crônica os sistemas inibitórios são deficitários, como demonstrado pelo enfraquecimento da inibição intracortical do córtex motor. No entanto, a desinibição intracortical pode ser parcialmente revertida pelo tratamento com técnicas de estimulação cerebral não invasiva, tais como a estimulação magnética transcraniana repetitiva (EMTr). Embora estudos com EMTr tenham mostrado resultados promissores, poucos têm avaliado simultaneamente seus efeitos em medidas comportamentais, bioquímicas e neurofisiológicas. Assim, neste estudo avaliamos o efeito da EMTr na dor e, considerando a sua ação na função dos sistemas inibitórios corticais e intra-corticais, também investigamos parâmetros de excitabilidade cortical e níveis do mediador de neuroplasticidade BDNF, após tratamento com EMTr ou intervenção sham, em indivíduos com SDM crônica. Objetivos: Comparar o efeito de 10 sessões de EMTr ao da intervenção sham na função das vias nociceptivas cortical e subcortical (limiares de excitabilidade cortical e limiares termoalgésicos periféricos), na capacidade funcional, na qualidade do sono, nos níveis de dor, no sistema modulatório descendente de dor e nos níveis séricos de BDNF, em indivíduos com dor crônica miofascial do complexo craniocervicomaxilar. Assim, a hipótese deste estudo é que 10 sessões de EMTr, quando comparada com intervenção sham está associada com melhora nos níveis de dor, em indivíduos com dor crônica miofascial do complexo craniocervicomaxilar. Métodos: Vinte e quatro participantes do sexo feminino, com idades entre 19-65 anos, diagnosticadas com SDM do complexo craniocervicomaxilar por pelo menos 3 meses anteriores ao recrutamento e que evidenciaram componente neuropático (escore igual ou maior a quarto no DN4 – questionário para diagnóstico de dor neuropática), foram randomizadas para receber dez sessões de estimulação magnética transcraniana repetitiva (EMTr) (n = 12) de 10 Hz ou intervenção sham (n = 12). O estudo avaliou se a dor [limiares termoalgésicos (QST)], o sistema inibitório descendente [modulação condicionada da dor (QST + CPM)], a excitabilidade cortical (parâmetros da EMT) e o BDNF foram alterados após a intervenção. Resultados: Houve interação significativa (tempo versus grupo) em relação aos escores de dor, evidenciados pela escala análoga visual analógica de dor (EVA) (análise de variância, P<0,01). Análise post hoc mostrou que, em comparação com intervenção sham, o tratamento com EMTr reduziu em 30,21% os escores diários de dor (95% intervalo de confiança [IC] de -39,23 - -21,20) e em 44,56% o uso de analgésicos (-57,46 - -31,67). Comparado com o sham, o grupo que recebeu EMTr ativa aprimorou o sistema corticoespinal inibitório (redução de 41,74% no QST+CPM, P<0,05), reduziu em 23,94% a facilitação intracortical (P=0,03), aumentou em 52,02% o potencial evocado motor (P=0,02) e apresentou aumento de 12,38 ng/ml no nível sérico de BDNF (IC 95%=2,32-22,38). O grupo que recebeu EMTr demonstrou aumento na média dos escores B-PCP:S (P<0.03), redução de 45% no número de doses analgésicas diárias (P<0.003) e melhora na qualidade do sono (P<0.01). Nenhum efeito adverso foi observado. Conclusões: O tratamento com 10 sessões de EMTr de alta frequência (10 Hz) foi associado com significativa melhora na SDM crônica. EMTr reduziu os escores de dor, diminuiu o uso de analgésicos e melhorou a qualidade do sono. Os resultados do estudo também sugerem que os efeitos analgésicos da EMTr na SDM crônica foram mediados por mecanismos top-down regulation, que aumentaram a atividade do sistema corticoespinal inibitório, bem como a secreção de BDNF. / Introduction: Although the complete pathophysiology of MPS remains unknown, cumulative evidences suggest that in chronic pain the inhibitory systems are defective, as indexed by the weakening motor cortex intracortical disinhibition. The intracortical disinhibition can be partially reverted by treatment with noninvasive brain stimulation techniques such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Although rTMS studies have shown promising results, few ones have assessed simultaneously its effect on behavioral, biochemical and neurophysiological measures. Thus, this study assessed the effect of rTMS on pain and, considering its action on the function of the inhibitory cortical and intracortical systems, this trial also evaluated cortical excitability parameters and levels of a neuroplasticity mediator BDNF, after rTMS treatment or a sham intervention in patients with chronic MPS. Objectives: To compare the effect of 10 sessions of rTMS with sham intervention effects in the cortical and subcortical nociceptive pathways (cortical excitability parameters and peripheral thermoalgesic thresholds), in the functional capacity, quality of sleep, pain levels, descending pain modulatory system and in BDNF serum levels in patients with chronic myofascial pain of jaw-cranial-cervical complex. Thus, the hypothesis of this study is that 10 sessions of rTMS, when compared with sham intervention result in improvement in pain levels in subjects with chronic myofascial pain of jaw-cranial-cervical complex. Methods: Twenty-four female aged 19-65 diagnosed with MPS of jaw-cranial-cervical complex for at least three months prior to recruitment and with neuropathic pain component (score equal or higher than four in the DN4 - neuropathic pain diagnostic questionnaire) were randomized to receive ten sessions of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) (n = 12) at 10 Hz or a sham intervention (n = 12). The study tested if pain [quantitative sensory testing (QST)], the descending inhibitory systems [conditioned pain modulation (QST+CPM)], the cortical excitability (TMS parameters) and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have changed after intervention. Results: There was a significant interaction (time vs. group) regarding the main outcomes of the pain scores as indexed by the visual analogue scale on pain (analysis of variance, P<0.01). Post hoc analysis showed that compared with sham intervention, the treatment decreased daily pain scores by 30.21% (95% confidence interval [CI] -39.23 - -21.20) and analgesic use by 44.56 (-57.46 - -31.67). Compared to sham intervention group, the rTMS group enhanced the corticospinal inhibitory system (41.74% reduction in QST+CPM, P<0.05), decreased by 23.94% the intracortical facilitation (P=0.03), and showed an increase of 52.02% the motor evoked potential (P=0.02) and presented 12.38 ng/mL higher serum BDNF (95%CI=2.32 - 22.38). rTMS group showed an increase in mean scores B-PCP: S (P <0.03), 45% reduction in the number of daily analgesic doses (P <0.003) and significantly better sleep quality (P <0.01). No adverse event was observed. Conclusions: The treatment with 10 sessions of high-frequency rTMS (10 Hz) was associated with significant improvement in chronic MPS. rTMS reduced pain scores, lowered analgesic use and improved sleep quality. The results also suggested that the rTMS analgesic effects in chronic MPS were mediated by top-down regulation mechanisms enhancing the activity of the corticospinal inhibitory system and that this effect involved an increase in BDNF secretion.

Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master’s Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2018. / BACKGROUND: Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) affect up to fifteen percent of adults. It produces craniofacial pain of musculoskeletal structures within the head and neck. One particular cause of TMDs is said to be myofascial pain syndrome (MFPS), which according to various research papers, if not considered and/or assessed, the general cause of a patient’s pain could be disregarded and incorrect treatment offered. Numerous studies conducted internationally on dental management of temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD) concluded that there is a significant gap in dentists’ education and training regarding the identification and management of MFPS. Upon reviewing the current literature available in South Africa, very little research existed on dentists’ knowledge and the management strategies that they utilised regarding MFPS in TMJD patients. OBJECTIVES: To determine the dentists’ knowledge regarding MFPS of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). What assessment and treatment/management strategies they use, and whether they make use of referral networks and if the respondents’ demographics influence their knowledge, utilisation, perception and referral patterns. METHODOLOGY: The researcher developed a research questionnaire, which was validated by both an expert and a pilot study group. This questionnaire was then used as a research tool in this cross-sectional study. General dental practitioners from the Greater eThekwini Region received an invitation to participate. The questionnaire-based survey consisted of five sections: biographical profile of respondents; topic background; perception; knowledge; utilisation and management (including referral patterns) of MFPS. RESULTS: The majority of respondents did receive basic education in MFPS, with 76.9% reporting that they received undergraduate education and 57.7% indicating that they had attended post-graduate courses/talks on MFPS. There was a 100% response from dentists indicating their willingness to attend post-graduate courses/talks on MFPS. The results indicated that the respondents, who felt that their curriculum regarding MFPS was sufficient, were more knowledgeable and more competent in diagnosing and managing MFPS. Overall, the average score for knowledge was 65.17%. Clinical features (78.85%) and the perpetuating and relieving factors (72.11%) scored the highest while causes (58.06%) and differential diagnoses (51.16%) scored the lowest knowledge levels. Respondents mostly made use of allopathic medical fields, and not of alternative medical fields, however a high number of respondents (73.1%) indicated that they would consider chiropractic co–management of patients with MFPS. CONCLUSION: This study adds new information in the South African context regarding dentists’ understanding of the myofascial component of TMDs. It also provides the dental profession with information about the knowledge and practices related to MFPS as well as information regarding the strengths and weaknesses on its educational component. It is recommended that dentists receive additional training on differential diagnoses and causes. It is also recommended that the chiropractic profession take this opportunity to offer courses/talks on MFPS and join forces with the dentistry profession on how they can assist in managing patients with MFPS. / M

Introdução: Níveis elevados de ansiedade têm sido associados com intensidade e comportamento da dor em pacientes com dores aguda e crônica. Foi observado, em indíviduos com síndrome dolorosa miofascial (SDM), que o estresse e a ansiedade aumentam a predisposição para o desenvolvimento de pontos-gatilhos miofasciais. Adicionalmente a isto, existe a tendência do indivíduo experimentar emoções negativas em situações de estresse (neuroticismo), característica de personalidade associada ao traço de personalidade, que pode influenciar negativamente na experiência de dor. Indivíduos com alta ansiedade-traço são geralmente hipersensíveis a estímulos e psicologicamente mais reativos. É concebível supôr a coexistência de alteração na excitabilidade cortical, entre dor crônica e ansiedade nestes pacientes. Para melhorar a compreensão dos mecanismos centrais relacionados à ansiedade e à dor crônica, avaliou-se os parâmetros de excitabilidade cortical, usando estimulação magnética transcraniana (EMT), pulso único e pareado. Nossa hipótese é que a excitabilidade corticoespinhal seja modulada pela ansiedade favorecendo a perda de influxo inibitório descendente. Objetivos: O presente estudo teve como objetivo responder a três perguntas relacionadas à síndrome dolorosa miofascial (SDM): 1) A excitabilidade do córtex motor está relacionada com a ansiedade-traço? 2) A ansiedade-traço modula alterações da excitabilidade corticoespinhal, após dor evocada pelo Quantitative Sensory Testing (QST)? 3) A ansiedade-traço prevê resposta à dor evocada pelo QST, se receber simultaneamente um estímulo heterotópico [Conditioned Pain Modulation (CPM)]? Pacientes e métodos: Foram incluídas mulheres com SDM (n = 47) e controles saudáveis (n = 11), com idade entre 19 e 65 anos. A excitabilidade do córtex motor foi avaliada pela EMT, e a ansiedade foi avaliada com base no Inventário de Ansiedade Traço-Estado (IDATE). A incapacidade relacionada à dor foi avaliada pelo perfil da escala de dor crônica para a população brasileira (B:PCP:S), e as medidas psicofísicas da dor foram medidas pelo QST e CPM. Resultados: Nas pacientes, a ansiedade-traço foi positivamente correlacionada com a facilitação intracortical (FIC) no baseline e após a dor evocada pelo QST (β = 0,05 e β = 0,04, respectivamente) e negativamente relacionada com o período de silêncio cortical (PSC) no baseline e após a dor evocada pelo QST (β = -1,17 e β = -1,23, respectivamente) (P <0,05 para todas as comparações). Após dor evocada pelo QST, a incapacidade relacionada à dor crônica foi positivamente correlacionada com a FIC (β = 0,02) (P <0,05). Os escores de dor durante o CPM foram positivamente correlacionados com a ansiedadetraço, quando a incapacidade relacionada à dor crônica foi igualmente alta (β = 0,39, P = 0,02). A excitabilidade cortical das controles saudáveis permaneceu inalterada após o QST. Conclusões: Estes resultados sugerem que, na SDM, o desequilíbrio entre os sistemas excitatórios e inibitórios descendentes do trato corticoespinhal está associado concomitantemente a maiores níveis de ansiedade-traço e maiores níveis de incapacidade funcional ocasionados pela dor crônica. / Background: High levels of anxiety have been associated with the intensity and pain behavior in patients with acute and chronic pain. It was observed that in subjects with myofascial pain (SDM), stress and anxiety syndrome increase the predisposition for the development of myofascial trigger points. In addition to this, there is a tendency of individuals to experience negative emotions in stressful situations (neuroticism), personality characteristic associated with trait personality that may negatively influence in the experience of pain. Individuals with higher trait anxiety are usually hypersensitive to stimuli and more psychologically reactive. It is conceivable to assume the co-existence of change in cortical excitability, chronic pain and anxiety, in these patients. To improve the understanding of the central mechanisms related to anxiety and chronic pain, we assessed cortical excitability parameters by single and paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). We hypothesize that corticospinal excitability is modulated by anxiety favoring loss of descendent inhibitory influx. Objectives: This study aimed to answer three questions related to chronic myofascial pain syndrome (MPS): 1) Is the motor cortex excitability, as assessed by transcranial magnetic stimulation parameters (TMS), related to state-trait anxiety? 2) Does anxiety modulate corticospinal excitability changes after evoked pain by Quantitative Sensory Testing (QST)? 3) Does the state-trait anxiety predict the response to pain evoked by QST if simultaneously receiving a heterotopic stimulus [Conditional Pain Modulation (CPM)]? Patient and methods: We included females with chronic MPS (n=47) and healthy controls (n=11), aged from 19 to 65 years. Motor cortex excitability was assessed by TMS, and anxiety was assessed based on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The disability related to pain (DRP) was assessed by the Profile of Chronic Pain scale for the Brazilian population (B:PCP:S), and the psychophysical pain measurements were measured by the QST and CPM. Results: In patients, trait-anxiety was positively correlated to intracortical facilitation (ICF) at baseline and after QST evoked pain (β= 0.05 and β= 0.04, respectively) and negatively correlated to the cortical silent period (CSP) (β= -1.17 and β= -1.23, respectively) (P <0.05 for all comparisons). After QST evoked pain, the DRP was positively correlated to ICF (β= 0.02) (P<0.05). Pain scores during CPM were positively correlated with trait-anxiety when it was concurrently with high DRP (β= 0.39; P= 0.02). Controls’cortical excitability remained unchanged after QST. Conclusions: These findings suggest that, in chronic MPS, the imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory descending systems of the corticospinal tract is associated with higher trait-anxiety concurrent with higher DRP.

Introdução: Embora a completa fisiopatologia da SDM permaneça desconhecida, evidências sugerem que na dor crônica os sistemas inibitórios são deficitários, como demonstrado pelo enfraquecimento da inibição intracortical do córtex motor. No entanto, a desinibição intracortical pode ser parcialmente revertida pelo tratamento com técnicas de estimulação cerebral não invasiva, tais como a estimulação magnética transcraniana repetitiva (EMTr). Embora estudos com EMTr tenham mostrado resultados promissores, poucos têm avaliado simultaneamente seus efeitos em medidas comportamentais, bioquímicas e neurofisiológicas. Assim, neste estudo avaliamos o efeito da EMTr na dor e, considerando a sua ação na função dos sistemas inibitórios corticais e intra-corticais, também investigamos parâmetros de excitabilidade cortical e níveis do mediador de neuroplasticidade BDNF, após tratamento com EMTr ou intervenção sham, em indivíduos com SDM crônica. Objetivos: Comparar o efeito de 10 sessões de EMTr ao da intervenção sham na função das vias nociceptivas cortical e subcortical (limiares de excitabilidade cortical e limiares termoalgésicos periféricos), na capacidade funcional, na qualidade do sono, nos níveis de dor, no sistema modulatório descendente de dor e nos níveis séricos de BDNF, em indivíduos com dor crônica miofascial do complexo craniocervicomaxilar. Assim, a hipótese deste estudo é que 10 sessões de EMTr, quando comparada com intervenção sham está associada com melhora nos níveis de dor, em indivíduos com dor crônica miofascial do complexo craniocervicomaxilar. Métodos: Vinte e quatro participantes do sexo feminino, com idades entre 19-65 anos, diagnosticadas com SDM do complexo craniocervicomaxilar por pelo menos 3 meses anteriores ao recrutamento e que evidenciaram componente neuropático (escore igual ou maior a quarto no DN4 – questionário para diagnóstico de dor neuropática), foram randomizadas para receber dez sessões de estimulação magnética transcraniana repetitiva (EMTr) (n = 12) de 10 Hz ou intervenção sham (n = 12). O estudo avaliou se a dor [limiares termoalgésicos (QST)], o sistema inibitório descendente [modulação condicionada da dor (QST + CPM)], a excitabilidade cortical (parâmetros da EMT) e o BDNF foram alterados após a intervenção. Resultados: Houve interação significativa (tempo versus grupo) em relação aos escores de dor, evidenciados pela escala análoga visual analógica de dor (EVA) (análise de variância, P<0,01). Análise post hoc mostrou que, em comparação com intervenção sham, o tratamento com EMTr reduziu em 30,21% os escores diários de dor (95% intervalo de confiança [IC] de -39,23 - -21,20) e em 44,56% o uso de analgésicos (-57,46 - -31,67). Comparado com o sham, o grupo que recebeu EMTr ativa aprimorou o sistema corticoespinal inibitório (redução de 41,74% no QST+CPM, P<0,05), reduziu em 23,94% a facilitação intracortical (P=0,03), aumentou em 52,02% o potencial evocado motor (P=0,02) e apresentou aumento de 12,38 ng/ml no nível sérico de BDNF (IC 95%=2,32-22,38). O grupo que recebeu EMTr demonstrou aumento na média dos escores B-PCP:S (P<0.03), redução de 45% no número de doses analgésicas diárias (P<0.003) e melhora na qualidade do sono (P<0.01). Nenhum efeito adverso foi observado. Conclusões: O tratamento com 10 sessões de EMTr de alta frequência (10 Hz) foi associado com significativa melhora na SDM crônica. EMTr reduziu os escores de dor, diminuiu o uso de analgésicos e melhorou a qualidade do sono. Os resultados do estudo também sugerem que os efeitos analgésicos da EMTr na SDM crônica foram mediados por mecanismos top-down regulation, que aumentaram a atividade do sistema corticoespinal inibitório, bem como a secreção de BDNF. / Introduction: Although the complete pathophysiology of MPS remains unknown, cumulative evidences suggest that in chronic pain the inhibitory systems are defective, as indexed by the weakening motor cortex intracortical disinhibition. The intracortical disinhibition can be partially reverted by treatment with noninvasive brain stimulation techniques such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Although rTMS studies have shown promising results, few ones have assessed simultaneously its effect on behavioral, biochemical and neurophysiological measures. Thus, this study assessed the effect of rTMS on pain and, considering its action on the function of the inhibitory cortical and intracortical systems, this trial also evaluated cortical excitability parameters and levels of a neuroplasticity mediator BDNF, after rTMS treatment or a sham intervention in patients with chronic MPS. Objectives: To compare the effect of 10 sessions of rTMS with sham intervention effects in the cortical and subcortical nociceptive pathways (cortical excitability parameters and peripheral thermoalgesic thresholds), in the functional capacity, quality of sleep, pain levels, descending pain modulatory system and in BDNF serum levels in patients with chronic myofascial pain of jaw-cranial-cervical complex. Thus, the hypothesis of this study is that 10 sessions of rTMS, when compared with sham intervention result in improvement in pain levels in subjects with chronic myofascial pain of jaw-cranial-cervical complex. Methods: Twenty-four female aged 19-65 diagnosed with MPS of jaw-cranial-cervical complex for at least three months prior to recruitment and with neuropathic pain component (score equal or higher than four in the DN4 - neuropathic pain diagnostic questionnaire) were randomized to receive ten sessions of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) (n = 12) at 10 Hz or a sham intervention (n = 12). The study tested if pain [quantitative sensory testing (QST)], the descending inhibitory systems [conditioned pain modulation (QST+CPM)], the cortical excitability (TMS parameters) and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have changed after intervention. Results: There was a significant interaction (time vs. group) regarding the main outcomes of the pain scores as indexed by the visual analogue scale on pain (analysis of variance, P<0.01). Post hoc analysis showed that compared with sham intervention, the treatment decreased daily pain scores by 30.21% (95% confidence interval [CI] -39.23 - -21.20) and analgesic use by 44.56 (-57.46 - -31.67). Compared to sham intervention group, the rTMS group enhanced the corticospinal inhibitory system (41.74% reduction in QST+CPM, P<0.05), decreased by 23.94% the intracortical facilitation (P=0.03), and showed an increase of 52.02% the motor evoked potential (P=0.02) and presented 12.38 ng/mL higher serum BDNF (95%CI=2.32 - 22.38). rTMS group showed an increase in mean scores B-PCP: S (P <0.03), 45% reduction in the number of daily analgesic doses (P <0.003) and significantly better sleep quality (P <0.01). No adverse event was observed. Conclusions: The treatment with 10 sessions of high-frequency rTMS (10 Hz) was associated with significant improvement in chronic MPS. rTMS reduced pain scores, lowered analgesic use and improved sleep quality. The results also suggested that the rTMS analgesic effects in chronic MPS were mediated by top-down regulation mechanisms enhancing the activity of the corticospinal inhibitory system and that this effect involved an increase in BDNF secretion.