Bei Schweinen lassen sich im Anfangsteil des Dickdarms hohe Konzentrationen an Histamin nachweisen. Zum einen wird viel exogenes Histamin in der Ingesta durch Bakterien gebildet. Zum anderen befindet sich im proximalen Kolon viel endogenes Histamin, welches in verschiedenen Populationen von Mastzellen gespeichert ist. Beide Histaminquellen stellen eine potenzielle Gefahr für die Gesundheit des Tieres dar. Sollte Histamin in den vorhandenen Mengen in die Blutzirkulation übertreten, müsste mit dem Tod des Tieres gerechnet werden. Da unter normalen Bedingungen bei Schweinen keine pathophysiologischen Reaktionen auf die hohen Histaminkonzentrationen im Darm beobachtet werden können, muss auf eine effektive Darmbarriere geschlossen werden. Weil weder diese Barriere bisher untersucht wurde, noch bekannt war, welche Wirkung Histamin in diesem Darmteil des Schweins besitzt, sollte in dieser Arbeit Wirkung, Permeation und Katabolismus von Histamin an isolierten Epithelien des proximalen Kolons mit Hilfe der Ussing-Kammer-Technik untersucht werden. Die Zugabe von Histamin zur serosalen Seite der Epithelien führte zu einem schnellen Anstieg des Kurzschlussstroms. Im Gegensatz zu zahlreichen anderen Untersuchungen an Darmepithelien, in denen eine H1-vermittelte Wirkung von Histamin gefunden wurde, wurde die Wirkung am proximalen Kolon des Schweins über H2-Rezeptoren vermittelt. Die Änderung des Kurzschlussstroms nach Histaminzugabe resultierte aus einer Chloridsekretion. Eine Chloridsekretion scheint somit eine generelle Wirkung von Histamin auf Darmepithelien zu sein, unabhängig von der Art des Wirkungs-vermittelnden Rezeptortyps. Histamin wurde aus den Epithelpräparationen spontan und nach Stimulation von Mastzellen freigesetzt. Obwohl nach Mastzellstimulation eine hohe Histaminfreisetzung beobachtet werden konnte, war dieses Histamin nicht an der sich aus der Stimulation ergebenen elektrophysiologischen Reaktion des Epithels beteiligt. In Fluxstudien mit radiaktiv markiertem Histamin wurde eine konzentrationsabhängige Histaminpermeation über das Epithel festgestellt. Diese Permeation ist von mukosal nach serosal scheinbar parazellulär lokalisiert. Dagegen scheint bei der Permeation von serosal nach mukosal ein transzellulärer Anteil vorhanden zu sein, da eine aktive Sekretion von Histamin in das Darmlumen festgestellt werden konnte. Während der Permeation von Histamin über das Epithel wurde in Abhängigkeit von der vorgegebenen Konzentration zwischen 80% und 100% des permeirenden Histamins verstoffwechselt. Somit besteht eine effektive Darmbarriere gegenüber exogenem Histamin, die sich aus einer geringen Permeation und einer hohen intraepithelialen Verstoffwechselung von Histamin zusammensetzt. Beide für den Abbau von Histamin in Frage kommenden Enzyme, Diaminoxidase (DAO) und Histamin-N-Methyltransferase (HNMT), sind am Katabolismus von Histamin beteiligt. Während in der Literatur die DAO als das „bedeutendste Enzym des Histaminkatabolismus am Darm“ angegeben wird, ist am proximalen Kolon des Schweins die HNMT wichtiger für den Histaminabbau. Beide Enzyme bewerkstelligen sowohl den Abbau von endogen freigesetztem Histamin als auch von transepithelial permeierendem Histamin. Somit hätte eine Hemmung dieser Enzyme, die durch eine Vielzahl von Stoffen, darunter gebräuchliche Arzneimittel, hervorgerufen werden kann, dramatische Konsequenzen. In diesem Fall würde der Körper in hohen Maßen sowohl von endogenem als auch von exogenem Histamin aus dem Darm belastet werden. / In the oral part of pig large intestine, high amounts of luminal histamine can be found due to bacterial production. Further more, histamine is abundantly present in the intestinal wall, where it is stored in different populations of mast cells. Both sources of histamine, exogenous and endogenous, are very dangerous for the body, because histamine is able to elicit systemic effects when it is spilt over in the systemic circulation. Under normal conditions no pathophysiological reactions can be observed in pigs due to the high amounts of histamine in the gut. Therefore, it must be concluded that there is a very effective barrier against luminal histamine. However, neither the barrier function has been characterized yet, nor is there any data available on the action of histamine in this part of the porcine gut. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect, permeation and catabolism of histamine in isolated epithelia of the proximal colon by using the Ussing chamber technique. Addition of histamine to the serosal side induced a rapid rise in short-circuit current. In contrast to many studies investigating the action of histamine in other gut epithelia, in the pig proximal colon histamine acts via H2 receptors. Histamine induced a chloride secretion, which seems to be a common mechanism of gut epithelia, independent from histamine receptor type involved. Endogenous histamine was liberated spontaneously from the epithelia in small amounts. High amounts of histamine were found after a mast cell stimulation. However, this histamine did not participate in a concurrent electrophysiological reaction of the epithelia. In flux studies with radioactively labeled histamine, a transepithelial permeation of histamine was observed in a dose dependent manner. This permeation was located on the paracellular pathway in the mucosal-to-serosal direction. In the serosal-to-mucosal direction a, at least in part, transcellular pathway must be concluded from the observed histamine secretion into the gut lumen. Among 80% and 100% of histamine was catabolised dose-dependently during permeation. Therefore, the very effective gut barrier against histamine is based on a low paracellular permeation and a high intraepithelial catabolism of histamine. The histamine-degrading enzymes, diamine oxidase (DAO) and histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT), took both part in the catabolism of histamine. While in literature DAO is called “the bottleneck of histamine degradation in the gut”, HNMT seems to be more significant in pig proximal colon. DAO and HNMT are important for the catabolism of exogenous and endogenous histamine. Therefore, inhibition of these enzymes, which is possible by numerous drugs, would have dramatic consequences. In that case, high amounts of histamine would be able to reach the systemic circulation.

Datura metel is a herbaceous plant found in almost all tropical parts of the world. It belongs to the family Solanaceae whose members, viz. Duboisia, Atropa, Hyoscyamus and Datura plants are known to produce tropane alkaloids- hyoscyamine and scopolamine which are most noted for their therapeutic use as anti-cholinergic agents. Since these alkaloids are produced in very low amounts in plants, alternative sources and methods of production for these alkaloids have been crucial in meeting the demands for these drugs. Endophytic fungi inhabiting a plant may have the potential to produce the same compounds as the host plants. The aim of the present study was to search for tropane alkaloid producing endophytic fungal isolates from Datura metel. Eighteen endophytic fungi were isolated from various tissues of Datura metel and screened for the presence of three tropane alkaloid biosynthetic genes- putrescine N-methyltransferase (PMT), tropinone reductase I (TRI) and hyoscyamine 6β-hydroxylase (H6H) using PCR-based screening approach. Six endophytic fungal isolates were found to possess the PMT, TR1 and H6H genes. The fungi were identified using molecular taxonomy as Col letotrichum boninense, Phomopsis sp., Fusarium solani, Col letotrichum incarnatum, Col letotrichum siamense and Col letotrichum gloeosporioides and the identity was confirmed using colony and spore morphology. The production of tropane alkaloids hyoscyamine and scopolamine by the fungi has been ascertained using various techniques like TLC, HPLC and ESI-MS/MS by comparison with the authentic reference standards. The amount of tropane alkaloids produced by all six fungi in liquid cultures was quantified using HPLC analysis. Among the six tropane alkaloid-producing fungi Col letotrichum incarnatum gave the highest yields of hyoscyamine and scopolamine which were 3.906 mg/L and 4.13 mg/L, respectively. With an aim to characterize the tropane alkaloid biosynthetic genes in these fungi, the PMT gene was isolated from five of the endophytic fungi- Col letotrichum boni-nense, Fusarium solani, Col letotrichum incarnatum, Col letotrichum siamense and Col-letotrichum gloeosporioides for the first time and the sequence analysis showed high ho-mology (98%) to the Datura metel PMT cDNA. The gene was found to be devoid of introns in the fungi. Further phylogenetic analysis of the full length PMT sequence from the fungi strongly supports the hypothesis of horizontal gene transfer between the host plant and endophytic fungi. For further in detail characterization of fungal PMT, the Col letotrichum boninense PMT gene was taken as a representative. CbPMT gene was cloned in pRSET A expres-sion vector and heterologously expressed in E. coli and biochemically characterized. For optimal yield of soluble protein upon heterologous expression different conditions such as IPTG concentration, temperature and time post induction were optimized. Optimal yield was obtained by inducing the culture by 0.25 mM IPTG once it had reached and O.D. of 0.6 and incubating at 37◦ C for 3 h. The recombinant CbPMT enzyme expressed as histidine tagged fusion protein was purified using Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. Gel elution studies were carried out to determine molecular weight of the protein and it was found that the protein exists as a homodimer in solution with some amount also present as a monomer. Catalytic activity of the purified recombinant enzyme was studied for its dependence on both substrates putrescine as well as S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). The Km and Vmax values for putrescine were found to be 464 µM and 18.55 nkat/mg, respectively, while those for S-adenosylmethionine were found to be 628 µM and 18.63 nkat/mg, respectively. Optimum temperature for activity was found to be 37◦ C and optimum pH range was found to be 8-9. Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to study the binding affinity of both the sub-strates to the enzyme. Fluorescence quenching data for each substrate was analysed by using a nonlinear regression curve fit and Kd values were found to be 0.309 mM for pu-trescine and 0.118 mM for SAM, respectively. Circular dichroism spectrum of the enzyme indicated a pattern typical for alpha helix in the secondary structure. Binding of either substrate led to increase in ellipticity of the protein. Fluorescence quenching studies with collisional quenchers- acrylamide, potassium iodide, and cesium chloride indicated that the native protein is folded in a conformation that allows tryptophan residues to be acces-sible for quenching. The fraction of tryptophan residues (fa ) accessible for quenching by acrylamide (1.06) was found to be higher than that for potassium iodide (0.54) while that cesium ions was the least (0.38). The neutral quencher acrylamide could access all the tryptophans meaning that none of tryptophans are completely buried inside hydrophobic cores. the differential accessibility to the charged quenchers, however, indicates that more of the tryptophans are surrounded by positively charged amino acids. The unfolding of the protein was studied with the aid of chaotropic agents guanidine-HCl and urea and thermodynamic parameters were determined. The denaturant m-values were found to be 2.313 kcal/mol/M for Gdn-HCl and 2.345 kcal/mol/M for urea respectively. The free energy of unfolding was estimated to be 2.635 kcal/mol for Gdn-HCl and 4.630 kcal/mol for urea. Since no reports are available about the thermodynamics of folding and unfolding of PMT from any plant source, this study contributes towards the understanding of protein stability. Although a lot of reports are available on the biochemical characterization of PMT from different plant sources, the crystal structure of PMT is not yet available. In the current work, homology based modelling studies on CbPMT were carried out to get some idea about the protein tertiary structure. Homology based modelling studies showed that a significant amount of protein is present as α-helices which are present on the surface while the β-sheets are present in the interior of the protein. Each monomer of the protein is capable of binding both the substrates and hence the dimerization property of the enzyme could be a purely structural one leading to more stability and solubility of the protein. In conclusion, this study has shown for the first time that endophytic fungi have significant potential to be used for tropane alkaloid production and six such fungal strains have been identified. Although the production of tropane alkaloids by endophytic fungi is not very high, it can be scaled up by over-expressing the biosynthetic gene putrescine N-methyltransferase in the highest producer- Col letotrichum incarnatum to further increase the yield. These endophytic fungi have significant potential to be applied in fermentation technology to meet the demands for these drugs economically.

The following work demonstrates that chromatin regulators play far more pronounced roles in dynamic gene expression than they do in steady-state. Histone modifications have been associated with transcription activity. However, previous analyses of gene expression in mutants affecting histone modifications show limited alteration. I systematically dissected the effects of 83 histone mutants and 119 gene deletion mutants on gene induction/repression in response to diamide stress in yeast. Importantly, I observed far more changes in gene induction/repression than changes in steady-state gene expression. The extensive dynamic gene expression profile of histone mutants and gene deletion mutants also allowed me to identify specific interactions between histone modifications and chromatin modifiers. Furthermore, by combining these functional results with genome-wide mapping of several histone modifications in the same time course, I was able to investigate the correspondence between histone modification occurrence and function. One such observation was the role of Set1-dependent H3K4 methylation in the repression of ribosomal protein genes (RPGs) during multiple stresses. I found that proper repression of RPGs in stress required the presence, but not the specific sequence, of an intron, an element which is almost unique to this gene class in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This repression may be related to Set1’s role in antisense RNA-mediated gene silencing. Finally, I found a potential role for Set1 in producing or maintaining uncapped mRNAs in cells through a mechanism that does not involved nuclear exoribonucleases. Thus, deletion of Set1 in xrn1Δ suppresses the accumulation of uncapped transcripts observed in xrn1Δ. These findings reveal that Set1, along with other chromatin regulators, plays important roles in dynamic gene expression through diverse mechanisms and thus provides a coherent means of responding to environmental cues.

Bei Schweinen lassen sich im Anfangsteil des Dickdarms hohe Konzentrationen an Histamin nachweisen. Zum einen wird viel exogenes Histamin in der Ingesta durch Bakterien gebildet. Zum anderen befindet sich im proximalen Kolon viel endogenes Histamin, welches in verschiedenen Populationen von Mastzellen gespeichert ist. Beide Histaminquellen stellen eine potenzielle Gefahr für die Gesundheit des Tieres dar. Sollte Histamin in den vorhandenen Mengen in die Blutzirkulation übertreten, müsste mit dem Tod des Tieres gerechnet werden. Da unter normalen Bedingungen bei Schweinen keine pathophysiologischen Reaktionen auf die hohen Histaminkonzentrationen im Darm beobachtet werden können, muss auf eine effektive Darmbarriere geschlossen werden. Weil weder diese Barriere bisher untersucht wurde, noch bekannt war, welche Wirkung Histamin in diesem Darmteil des Schweins besitzt, sollte in dieser Arbeit Wirkung, Permeation und Katabolismus von Histamin an isolierten Epithelien des proximalen Kolons mit Hilfe der Ussing-Kammer-Technik untersucht werden. Die Zugabe von Histamin zur serosalen Seite der Epithelien führte zu einem schnellen Anstieg des Kurzschlussstroms. Im Gegensatz zu zahlreichen anderen Untersuchungen an Darmepithelien, in denen eine H1-vermittelte Wirkung von Histamin gefunden wurde, wurde die Wirkung am proximalen Kolon des Schweins über H2-Rezeptoren vermittelt. Die Änderung des Kurzschlussstroms nach Histaminzugabe resultierte aus einer Chloridsekretion. Eine Chloridsekretion scheint somit eine generelle Wirkung von Histamin auf Darmepithelien zu sein, unabhängig von der Art des Wirkungs-vermittelnden Rezeptortyps. Histamin wurde aus den Epithelpräparationen spontan und nach Stimulation von Mastzellen freigesetzt. Obwohl nach Mastzellstimulation eine hohe Histaminfreisetzung beobachtet werden konnte, war dieses Histamin nicht an der sich aus der Stimulation ergebenen elektrophysiologischen Reaktion des Epithels beteiligt. In Fluxstudien mit radiaktiv markiertem Histamin wurde eine konzentrationsabhängige Histaminpermeation über das Epithel festgestellt. Diese Permeation ist von mukosal nach serosal scheinbar parazellulär lokalisiert. Dagegen scheint bei der Permeation von serosal nach mukosal ein transzellulärer Anteil vorhanden zu sein, da eine aktive Sekretion von Histamin in das Darmlumen festgestellt werden konnte. Während der Permeation von Histamin über das Epithel wurde in Abhängigkeit von der vorgegebenen Konzentration zwischen 80% und 100% des permeirenden Histamins verstoffwechselt. Somit besteht eine effektive Darmbarriere gegenüber exogenem Histamin, die sich aus einer geringen Permeation und einer hohen intraepithelialen Verstoffwechselung von Histamin zusammensetzt. Beide für den Abbau von Histamin in Frage kommenden Enzyme, Diaminoxidase (DAO) und Histamin-N-Methyltransferase (HNMT), sind am Katabolismus von Histamin beteiligt. Während in der Literatur die DAO als das „bedeutendste Enzym des Histaminkatabolismus am Darm“ angegeben wird, ist am proximalen Kolon des Schweins die HNMT wichtiger für den Histaminabbau. Beide Enzyme bewerkstelligen sowohl den Abbau von endogen freigesetztem Histamin als auch von transepithelial permeierendem Histamin. Somit hätte eine Hemmung dieser Enzyme, die durch eine Vielzahl von Stoffen, darunter gebräuchliche Arzneimittel, hervorgerufen werden kann, dramatische Konsequenzen. In diesem Fall würde der Körper in hohen Maßen sowohl von endogenem als auch von exogenem Histamin aus dem Darm belastet werden. / In the oral part of pig large intestine, high amounts of luminal histamine can be found due to bacterial production. Further more, histamine is abundantly present in the intestinal wall, where it is stored in different populations of mast cells. Both sources of histamine, exogenous and endogenous, are very dangerous for the body, because histamine is able to elicit systemic effects when it is spilt over in the systemic circulation. Under normal conditions no pathophysiological reactions can be observed in pigs due to the high amounts of histamine in the gut. Therefore, it must be concluded that there is a very effective barrier against luminal histamine. However, neither the barrier function has been characterized yet, nor is there any data available on the action of histamine in this part of the porcine gut. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect, permeation and catabolism of histamine in isolated epithelia of the proximal colon by using the Ussing chamber technique. Addition of histamine to the serosal side induced a rapid rise in short-circuit current. In contrast to many studies investigating the action of histamine in other gut epithelia, in the pig proximal colon histamine acts via H2 receptors. Histamine induced a chloride secretion, which seems to be a common mechanism of gut epithelia, independent from histamine receptor type involved. Endogenous histamine was liberated spontaneously from the epithelia in small amounts. High amounts of histamine were found after a mast cell stimulation. However, this histamine did not participate in a concurrent electrophysiological reaction of the epithelia. In flux studies with radioactively labeled histamine, a transepithelial permeation of histamine was observed in a dose dependent manner. This permeation was located on the paracellular pathway in the mucosal-to-serosal direction. In the serosal-to-mucosal direction a, at least in part, transcellular pathway must be concluded from the observed histamine secretion into the gut lumen. Among 80% and 100% of histamine was catabolised dose-dependently during permeation. Therefore, the very effective gut barrier against histamine is based on a low paracellular permeation and a high intraepithelial catabolism of histamine. The histamine-degrading enzymes, diamine oxidase (DAO) and histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT), took both part in the catabolism of histamine. While in literature DAO is called “the bottleneck of histamine degradation in the gut”, HNMT seems to be more significant in pig proximal colon. DAO and HNMT are important for the catabolism of exogenous and endogenous histamine. Therefore, inhibition of these enzymes, which is possible by numerous drugs, would have dramatic consequences. In that case, high amounts of histamine would be able to reach the systemic circulation.

No description available.

The adrenergic system plays an important role in the regulation of blood pressure. In the spontaneously hypertensive rat, the most studied model of essential hypertension, many components of the adrenergic system are altered. Changes in expression level of any catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes or any adrenergic receptor subtypes could be one of the causes of hypertension development. In this work, the expression of adrenergic system genes was measured in adrenal gland, renal cortex and renal medulla of the spontaneously hypertensive (SHR), Wistar-Kyoto and Brown Norway rats at the age of thirteen weeks. In adrenal gland of SHR, all four catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes (tyrosine hydroxylase, DOPA decarboxylase, dopamine β-hydroxylase and phenylethanolamine-N- methyltransferase) and almost all subtypes of adrenergic receptors (with the exception of Adra1a and Adra1d) were underexpressed. This generally decreased expression in adrenal gland of SHR suggests that at least a part of regulation of adrenergic system gene expression is common. The mechanism of this downregulation in SHR could be a negative feedback through adrenergic receptors stimulated by high plasma noradrenaline concentration. In the kidney of SHR, there were no differences in the expression of most of adrenergic receptor subtypes with the...