This thesis investigates the assertion by many early and more recent New Zealand glacial workers, that the high catchment rainfall and low seasonality in New Zealand create unique glacial sedimentary and geomorphic processes. Specifically the thesis examines the nature of glacial sedimentology and geomorphology in South Island, New Zealand focussing on the Rakaia Valley, as most of the early studies that suggested a distinct New Zealand process environment were based on South Island, East Coast glacial valleys. The thesis provides insights into glacial processes operating at glacial termini of late Quaternary glaciers in this region. The primary findings are as follows: Glacial terminus landforms (moraines) and sediments are described in two eastern (Rakaia and Ashburton Lakes) and one western (Waiho) valley of South Island. There are three main types of landforms 1) outwash head, 2) push moraines and 3) ice-contact fans. Outwash heads and push moraines have been identified before in New Zealand, but ice-contact fans have not. The spatial relationships between the three landforms can be complex especially where there is a fluctuating glacier terminus. Outwash heads are the dominant landform, with ice-contact fans deposited at a stationary terminus with channelised meltwater and push moraines preserved during retreat accompanied with outwash head incision. Both ice-contact fans and push moraines are prone to reworking into the outwash head. Supraglacial material comprises a small cap on the moraines and is usually insignificant in this system. The nature of past glacier termini can be gained from detailed study of these three landform relationships and their sediment record. The dominance of glacifluvial processes at the glacier terminus is a reflection of the low seasonality, abundant catchment rainfall, coupled with a large sediment supply. Preservation and deposition of the push moraines and ice-contact fans are controlled by glacifluvial processes on an outwash head, which in turn are controlled by the mass balance of the glacier. Sedimentology, stratigraphy and facies architecture were examined in the lower Rakaia Valley and elsewhere. The main environments recorded by these sediments are largely proglacial lacustrine and fluvial including 1) outwash gravels, with deposition of a sequence of glacier-fed, Gilbert-type deltas deposited over buried ice at Bayfield Cliff, 2) lacustrine silts and sands, 3) sub-aqueous ice-contact fans, 4) sub-aqueous mass flow deposits, and 5) supraglacial melt out material. These glacilacustrine facies are widespread during both retreats and advances. Sub-aqueous deltas are the primary ice terminus form, in this mid-valley lacustrine setting, which record termini advance and retreats. Syn- and postdepositional deformation of lacustine facies are also common as a result of pushing and overriding from the fluctuating glacier termini. Buried ice is also widespread and many of these deposits display evidence of disruption of sedimentation by its meltout. This implies that stagnant tongues of ice were often buried by outwash and lacustrine sediments. From the sediments and geomorphology described in this thesis, two main glacier terminus settings in New Zealand valleys are apparent A) when the glacier terminus is on or abutting its outwash fan-head, or B) when the glacier terminus is within its trough. Both the geomorphic and edimentological findings allow a better understanding of New Zealand glacial chronologies. Firstly, the sedimentology permits the identification of many more advances and retreats than are recorded in surface sediments. At Rakaia Valley, facies record six significant advances and retreats and many more small oscillations over the last 200 000 years. The geomorphic understanding and high resolution mapping has identified many more ice termini in the valleys than were previously recognised and allow the insights into ice margin behaviour through time. This includes the changing location of outwash heads and glacial troughs, with a migration up-valley since the OIS 6 advance/s, in the Rakaia Valley. The glacier overran its outwash head to reach its LGM position, and subsequently retreated slowly over about 10,000 years, back to its outwash head. It then changed to a calving margin and continued retreating but with no terminal moraines preserved, only lateral features. The research in this thesis has contributed to greater understanding of the New Zealand glacial system. Although low seasonality and large volumes of meltwater do play a role, and equally important control in New Zealand valleys is that of tectonics in terms of delivering huge sediment supply. This sediment supply enables large outwash head and fans to accumulate, which allow large stable lakes to form during glacier recession. The data and interpretations from this thesis will underpin the development of a New Zealand glacial land system, of which other valleys such as the Himalayas have. This land system development is important for understanding the temperate, high sediment yield glacial environment end member.

The ability to understand speech in noise has a profound impact on everyday communication, but cannot be predicted on the basis of puretone thresholds and/or performance on tests of speech in quiet. The aim of this thesis was to develop an adaptive speech in noise test based on the Hearing in Noise Test (HINT) that would be reliable and valid for speakers of New Zealand English (NZE). The methodology used followed the standard procedures for developing the HINT in a new language. Five hundred sentences of 5-7 syllables were collected from New Zealand children’s books and recorded by a native NZE speaker. Nine normal-hearing native NZE speakers aged 18-50 listened to three sets of 50 sentences at -2, -4 and -7 dB signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) in order to establish a performance-intensity (PI) function for these sentences. Three groups of 10 participants were scored on their performance on the sentences in 65 dBA speech-weighted noise at varying SNR. After each round of testing with a new group of participants, the SNR of each sentence was adjusted in order to get closer to 70% intelligibility for all sentences. Sentences that were too easy or difficult or did not respond to adjustments were discarded. Once the remaining 240 sentences were of approximately equal intelligibility, 24 phonemically matched lists of 10 sentences were formed and tested on 12 participants using the adaptive HINT software. The overall mean threshold was calculated as -6 dB, s.d=1.1 dB. The lists were combined to form 12 lists of 20 sentences which would become the NZHINT. Time delays meant that the collection of normative data could not be completed.

This thesis investigated the mental health and parenting practices of a sample of recently separated parents. Study 1 recruited 112 recently separated mothers and fathers, who completed a web-based survey. Results showed that these parents are at higher risk of numerous mental health issues, and were more depressed than the general population. Males experienced more suicidal ideation than females did. As time since separation increased, so wellbeing decreased. Important predictors of poor mental health post-separation were discussed. Recently separated parents did not report more negative or less positive parenting than the general population, but did report lower levels of parenting self-efficacy. Several relationships between predictor and parenting variables are described. Cross-sectional relationships between mental health and parenting variables are also discussed. Study 2 was conducted five months later and 79% (88) of the parents from Study 1 completed the web based survey for Study 2. Results showed an increase in wellbeing over time for both males and females. Suicidal ideation decreased over time and this relationship was more pronounced for males than it was for females. Predictors of poor mental health at Time 2 were discussed. The parents‟ parenting self-efficacy increased over time. There were no other changes or sex differences found in parenting practices, but sex differences in parenting circumstances are discussed. This thesis enhances New Zealand research by providing an in-depth analysis of the mental health and parenting practices of recently separated parents. These findings contribute to our understanding of the circumstances that New Zealand separated parents experience, and the effects that these circumstances can have on the parents.

Coastal lagoon systems are complex and dynamic environments that respond rapidly to the changes of fluvial, marine, climatic and anthropogenic influences. The purpose of this research was to investigate the morphology and dynamics of the New River Lagoon before and after the implementation of engineering outlet management using a methodological framework to analyse active process environments. This information was then used to determine the functional effectiveness of engineering management at reducing the risk of flooding and erosion to the local community and imposing minimal impacts on the environmental integrity of the lagoon system. This investigation used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate the morphology and dynamics of the New River Lagoon in relation to active process environments. Outlet dynamics, lagoon channel structure and adjacent shoreline stability were assessed over a decadal timescale prior to engineering management by analysing temporal aerial photographs. Following engineering management, the hydrology of the lagoon was investigated, along with the relationship between morphological changes to the artificial lagoon outlet and changes in lagoon hydrology, local wave climate and local precipitation levels. Water depth, conductivity and temperature records were used to explain lagoon hydrology and Global Navigation Satellite Surveying (GNSS) and weekly oblique photographs were used to explain and document changes in outlet morphology. Wave and rainfall data were used to explain the balances between marine and fluvial environments and their affects on outlet dynamics. Significant changes in lagoon morphology and dynamics were observed at the New River Lagoon between pre- and post-management periods, with the former considered more stable in terms of outlet migration patterns and hydrodynamics. The lagoon outlet prior to engineering management showed morphological characteristics similar to hapua-type systems, migrating along the coastline and forming shore-parallel outlet channels in response to the dominance of a strong longshore drift of sediment. Current outlet dynamics are restricted by artificial outlet management and typically cycle intermittently between open/closed phases in response to variable levels of rainfall and marine sediment supply; characteristics similar to Intermittently Open/Closed Lagoons (ICOLs) found in areas of Australia and South Africa. Hydrologically, the lagoon is considered to be located on a continuum between hapua and estuaries during pre- and post-management periods due to intermittent tidal influences. However, artificial outlet management has significantly increased the frequency and duration of tidal exchange, which now classifies the New River lagoon closer to an estuarine environment. The artificial lagoon outlet and associated breakwater were effective at flushing high flows of water during the study period. However, the outlet was prone to blockage and migration; two morphological states capable of causing flooding. Currently, the greatest risks to flooding at the lagoon are flash floods, following dry periods where marine sediment has established a solid barrier across the outlet, during which water levels are already elevated. Increases in tidal influences, lower lagoon water levels and an increase in lagoon salinity are a direct result of engineering management intervention. An increase in freshwater flushing through the lagoon outlet and deepened of the outlet channel to below sea level, allows for pronounced tidal influences during outlet opening. Restriction of the lagoon outlet from forming a natural migration outlet channel in the direction of littoral drift has meant the outlet is most often oriented perpendicular to the sea, as appose to at an angle away from the direction of incoming waves and currents, further increasing tidal influences. In order to make sustainable management decisions, future management of the lagoon system must weight-up the effects of a high energy coastline to the integrity of the engineering structure, the impact of the structure on the lagoons environmental integrity and the outlets ability to become unstable and cause a flood risk. The findings of this research have improved the understanding of the New River Lagoon system, and its response to engineering management intervention, while adding to the understanding of river-mouth lagoon systems both nationally and internationally.

Worldwide, estuaries are under increasing pressure from numerous contaminants. There is a need to develop reliable bioassay methodologies to assess the effects of these stressors on estuary health. This thesis aimed to develop and validate toxicity tests in a New Zealand marine harpacticoid copepod species for use in monitoring and evaluating the effects of estuarine pollution. A survey and toxicological assessment of a range of native copepod species resulted in the selection of Quinquelaophonte sp. as the ideal bioassay species. This selection was based on a broad regional distribution, ease of culture and high reproductive rate in the laboratory, sexual dimorphism, and sensitivity to contaminants. To validate the bioassay, spiked sediments were used to expose Quinquelaophonte sp. to three reference compounds representing important categories of estuarine chemical stressors: zinc (a metal), atrazine (a pesticide), and phenanthrene (a polyaromatic hydrocarbon). A method for spiking sediments that Quinquelaophonte sp. inhabit was developed to ensure even contaminant distribution in sediments. Two sediment bioassays using lethal and sublethal endpoints were validated, one acute (96 h) and one chronic (14 d). These assays incorporated both lethal and sublethal endpoints, which included reproductive output and mobility. Acute-to-chronic ratios were calculated for use in environmental risk assessment and to provide insight into the mode of action of the reference contaminants. The chronic sediment bioassay was used to assess sediment quality in three estuaries across New Zealand: Napier, Christchurch and Invercargill. This validated the bioassay for use with naturally-contaminated field sediments with varying mixtures of pollutants and sediment types (coarse sandy to fine silty organic rich sediments). Quinquelaophonte sp. was also tested to assess whether it can be used to characterise multi–generation impacts. After four generations of exposure to zinc, there were changes in acute sensitivity, indicating this species possesses mechanisms for acclimating or adapting to toxic stressors. Sediment bioassays in Quinquelaophonte sp. were successfully developed and validated, offering significant promise as a tool for monitoring effects of pollution in New Zealand estuaries.

The demand by ecotourism for easily accessible wildlife encounters has increased the need for regulations to minimise negative effects of tourism on towards marine mammals. High levels of human interaction could have serious consequences for recovering populations of New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri). By monitoring behavioural shifts in reactions to human disturbance, the aim of this study was to determine how disturbance by tourism is affecting the behaviour of the New Zealand fur seals. Fur seal breeding colonies, haul-outs, and a pup nursery were studied on the South Island to determine the level of disturbance. Data collected in this study can be used towards improving monitoring regimes to mitigate negative effects of anthropogenic disturbance. I first used behavioural observations to assess a seal’s behaviour in response to different types of tourist activities. Next, I examined changes in New Zealand fur seal behaviour as a result of visits to colonies by tourist boats. To quantify the response of fur seals to tourist boats, experimental boat approaches were conducted using a before, during, and after instantaneous scan sampling method at two breeding colonies (one with high vessel traffic and one with none). Impact of noise was also investigated using a loud speaker to mimic local harbour tours. Lastly, behavioural observations on seal pups at a nursery were conducted comparing pup behaviour in the presence and absence of tourism along with variable intensities of tourist behaviour. My observations suggest that seal behaviour was significantly different between sites with and without tourist visits. The type of tourism had a significant effect on the behavioural state of seals, with animals more active when there were people walking in the colonies. There were also signs of habituation in some of the study colonies. Since each colony varied in the type of tourism it experienced, it is possible that it is not only the level of tourism that is important but also the type of tourism that has a significant role in eliciting short-term behavioural shifts. Observations from a tour boat revealed an increase in the percentage of seals reacting when vessels were close to the shore. This distance effect was overridden and reactions were greater, however, when tours included commentary via an external speaker. The effects of both distance and noises were significantly different between colonies with high and low levels of tourist visits. Due to the overlap of peak tourist visits with fur seal breeding season, these animals are at their most vulnerable when companies are in peak operation. Finally, as with adults, pup behaviour was also significantly affected by tourism presence. Periods of inactivity and awareness increased in the presence of tourists, which is indicative of disruption of “play” and movement towards more vigilant behaviour. Despite the significant effects of tourist visits I found in this study, there was large variation in the degree of responses in different populations of the fur seal. This variation is thought to be due, in part, by the level of desensitisation, especially at locations with high or continual tourism pressures. This study also provides evidence that fur seal pups subject to human disturbance will alter their behaviour, shifting from active (when people are not around) to inactive and more aware (with increased disturbance). The results presented suggest such visits are not without consequences and that animals can be disturbed by human interactions. Therefore, measures should be taken at all seal colonies used in tourism ventures to mitigate any negative long-term effect on the fur seal populations.

The economic impact of frost on agriculture remains a global problem. It is a particular concern for the New Zealand wine industry, where the consequences of an unexpected spring frost can be disastrous. Marlborough is located in the north-eastern corner of the South Island and is the largest grape-growing region in New Zealand. The region is surrounded by complex mountainous terrain that gives rise to extremes of climate, particularly large spatial variations of minimum temperature and the frequent occurrence of spring frost. The high spatial variation of near-surface minimum temperature can lead to under-preparedness among grape growers who rely on accurate frost forecasts as part of their frost mitigation systems. Field campaigns of the 1980’s and 90’s extended the understanding of the physical meteorological processes that affect cooling in complex terrain. More recent modelling efforts continue to refine this knowledge, although much less attention is given to the effects of different cooling processes on near-surface temperature. Agricultural developments in areas of complex terrain would benefit from an increased understanding of the meteorological processes that govern near-surface cooling, as this will help with the local prediction of frost. The spatial variation of near-surface minimum temperatures is first explored by identifying relationships with synoptic weather patterns using the Kidson (2000) synoptic classification scheme. Analysis revealed that Kidson types associated with the largest daily variations in near-surface minimum temperature (T, TNW and H) are not always associated with the occurrence of frost. Frost is more likely to occur during the cooler airflows of Kidson type HW, HNW and SW, or during the settled anticyclonic conditions that follow cooler airflows. The relationship between the spatial variation of near-surface minimum temperature and regional airflow patterns is explored using numerical weather prediction (NWP) modelling. Results indicated that a high σ Tmin around the region is a product of interaction between the region’s complex terrain and ambient meteorology, and it could occur in both settled weather and more dynamic synoptic conditions. A high regional σ Tmin during light ridge top winds could occur as a function of a location’s relative susceptibility to ventilation from thermally-induced drainage winds, and it may also occur as a result of the simultaneous ventilation and stagnation of near-surface air layers as synoptic wind interacts with local topography. The influence of the vertical structure of the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) on nearsurface minimum temperature was investigated with the University of Canterbury Sonic Detection And Ranging (SODAR). Measurements confirmed the formation of low-level jets (LLJ’s) in the Awatere and Wairau Valleys during settled weather conditions, and that shear-induced turbulence beneath the jets was sufficient to mix warmer air to the surface and increase local temperatures. The process is sufficient to reduce frost risk to some of the region’s upper valleys during clear settled weather. In stronger ridge top winds development of the LLJ’s can be suppressed or eliminated and this was found to reduce shear-induced turbulence near the surface, allowing increased near-surface cooling. While results from this study are of greatest value to the prediction of near-surface minimum temperature and frost in Marlborough, the results could be applied to improved prediction of near-surface minimum temperature in complex terrain around the world. Further research could be directed toward the interaction of synoptic winds with thermally-induced airflows, as the transition zone between these wind systems is believed to govern the temporal and spatial evolution of near-surface stagnation, and this is related to episodes of strong near-surface cooling.

Biofouling pests, including non-indigenous species, can have significant impacts on anthropogenic activities. This is particularly true for aquaculture industries, where biofouling communities grow on crop species and infrastructure, potentially reducing revenue and increasing processing and production costs. It is of interest to marine farmers and scientists to gain a better understanding of the processes facilitating the regional proliferation and spread of biofouling pests. The structure of biofouling communities associated with marine farms in New Zealand’s main mussel growing region, Pelorus Sound, are characterised in this thesis. The patterns of connectivity and gene flow among biofouling populations are also investigated. Images and video footage of biofouling on mussel farms (Perna canaliculus) indicate strong spatial variation in the structure of biofouling communities, with a dominance of known problematic taxa and high wave energy tolerant species, such as the brown alga Undaria pinnatifida and the calcareous tubeworm Pomatoceros sp., near the entrance of Pelorus Sound. Genetic analyses and simple GIS-based modelling of a case study biofouling organism, Didemnum vexillum, revealed genetic differentiation among populations with extreme outcrossing and low levels of connectivity. Genetic analyses also suggest that anthropogenic-assisted dispersal may be vital for connecting certain D. vexillum populations compared to natural spread. The present study illustrates how multidisciplinary research approaches can be used to identify geographical areas that are less prone to biofouling and to inform the management of biofouling pests and invasive species in aquaculture environments.

What is the fa'aSamoa? Is it fair to just say the "Samoan Way"? This study aims to define and determine the significance of such an all-encompassing concept. The objectives of this investigation is to illustrate the evolution of the fa'aSamoa, from its "classical" model to a "variant" model practiced among the Samoan Christchurch community; yet, still be classified as the fa'aSamoa. This investigation aims to look at the institutions of the fa'aSamoa to highlight how change within the Samoan community is not only from "external" forces but also change has occurred from within the Samoan community. One of the objectives of this thesis is to highlight the different groups within the Samoan community, who have different needs from that of other members in the community. The transportation of the fa'aSamoa successfully to these shores has brought about an element of "togetherness" among the Samoan communities. Furthermore, the fa'aSamoa has evolved from the "Samoan Way" to a concept of traditions.

Michael King is an acclaimed writer, author and communicator. When he died in a car accident he was eulogised as one of New Zealand's leading citizens for his literary contribution. He is celebrated as a writer who communicated history in a way that was palatable and comprehensible to all New Zealanders. He is also remembered for his commentary on New Zealand as a bi-cultural society. This thesis debates whether his years as a journalist gave him the skills to write, argue and communicate better. King was not a journalist for long and then he taught journalism, but those years served as a bridge between academia and a life in everyday New Zealand. Good writing and good journalistic writing have been analysed and refined down to basic rules which are then measured against King's work. Drivers to good writing have also been identified and these relate to the emotional and psychological characteristics of a good writer. Anecdotal evidence about King's work as a journalist and then as a writer has been gathered and tested against the rules and drivers. Two key themes have emerged. One that King was born with a natural ability to write and this was fuelled by strong reading and writing habits early in his life. The second is that King worked at being a good journalist, he learned rules and disciplines which improved his writing and these stayed with him throughout his literary career. The issue of objectivity is a moot point for journalists and there is debate about how objective journalists can realistically be. One of the reasons King left daily journalism was because he became frustrated with the constraints of objectivity. The thesis debates how this impacted on his writing and the direction of his later work.