La régulation transcriptionnelle des gènes est cruciale pour permettre le bon fonctionnement des cellules. Afin que les cellules puissent accomplir leurs fonctions, les gènes doivent être exprimés adéquatement dans le bon type cellulaire et au stade de développement et de différenciation approprié. Un dérèglement dans l’expression de un ou plusieurs gènes peut entraîner de graves conséquences sur le destin de la cellule. Divers éléments en cis (ex : promoteurs et enhancers) et en trans (machinerie transcriptionnelle et facteurs de transcription) sont impliqués dans la régulation de la transcription. Les gènes du locus humain beta-globine (hub) sont exprimés dans les cellules érythroïdes et sont finenement régulés lors du développement et de la différenciation. Des mutations dans différentes régions du locus causent entre autres les beta-thalassémies. Nous avons utilisé ce modèle bien caractérisé afin d’étudier différents mécanismes de régulation favorisés par les facteurs de transcription qui sont exprimés dans les cellules érythroïdes. Nous nous sommes intéressés à l’importance de l’élément en cis HS2 du Locus control region. Cet élément possède plusieurs sites de liaison pour des facteurs de transcription impliqués dans la régulation des gènes du locus hub. Nos résultats montrent que HS2 possède un rôle dans l’organisation de la chromatine du locus qui peut être dissocié de son rôle d’enhancer. De plus, HS2 n’est pas essentiel pour l’expression à haut niveau du gène beta alors qu’il est important pour l’expression des gènes gamma. Ceci suggère que le recrutement des différents facteurs au site HS2 lors du développement influence différement les gènes du locus. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons investigué l’importance de HS2 lors de la différenciation des cellules érythroïdes. Il avait été rapporté que l’absence de HS2 influence grandement la potentialisation de la chromatine du gène beta. La potentialisation dans les cellules progénitrices favorise l’activation transcriptionnelle du gène dans les cellules matures. Nous avons caractérisé le recrutement de différents facteurs de transcription au site HS2 et au promoteur beta dans les cellules progénitrices hématopoïétiques (CPH) ainsi que dans les cellules érythroïdes matures. Nos résultats montrent que le facteur EKLF est impliqué dans la potentialisation de la chromatine et favorise le recrutement des facteurs BRG1, p45 et CBP dans les CPH. L’expression de GATA-1 dans les cellules érythroïdes matures permet le recrutement de GATA-1 au locus hub dans ces cellules. Ces données suggèrent que la combinaison de EKLF et GATA-1 est requise pour permettre une activation maximale du gène beta dans les cellules érythroïdes matures. Un autre facteur impliqué dans la régulation du locus hub est Ikaros. Nous avons étudié son recrutement au locus hub et avons observé que Ikaros est impliqué dans la répression des gènes gamma. Nos résultats montrent aussi que GATA-1 est impliqué dans la répression de ces gènes et qu’il interagit avec Ikaros. Ensemble, Ikaros et GATA-1 favorisent la formation d’un complexe de répression aux promoteurs gamma. Cette étude nous a aussi permis d’observer que Ikaros et GATA-1 sont impliqués dans la répression du gène Gata2. De façon intéressante, nous avons caractérisé le mécanisme de répression du gène Hes1 (un gène cible de la voie Notch) lors de la différenciation érythroïde. Similairement à ce qui a été observé pour les gènes gamma, Hes1 est aussi réprimé par Ikaros et GATA-1. Ces résultats suggèrent donc que la combinaison de Ikaros et GATA-1 est associée à la répression de plusieurs de gènes dans les cellules érythroïdes. Globalement cette thèse rapporte de nouveaux mécanismes d’action de différents facteurs de transcription dans les cellules érythroïdes. Particulièrement, nos travaux ont permis de proposer un modèle pour la régulation des gènes du locus hub lors du développement et de la différenciation. De plus, nous rapportons pour la première fois l’importance de la collaboration entre les facteurs Ikaros et GATA-1 dans la régulation transcriptionnelle de gènes dans les cellules érythroïdes. Des mutations associées à certains des facteurs étudiés ont été rapportées dans des cas de beta-thalassémies ainsi que de leucémies. Nos travaux serviront donc à avoir une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes d’action de ces facteurs afin de potentiellement pouvoir les utiliser comme cibles thérapeutiques. / Gene transcriptional regulation is crucial for appropriate cell functioning. Genes must be properly expressed in the right cell type as well as at the right developmental and differenciation stage in order to allow the cells to accomplish their functions. Abnormal expression of one or many genes can dramatically influence cell fate. Diverse cis (ex : promoters and enhancers) and trans (transcriptional machinery and transcription factors) elements are involved in transcriptional regulation. Genes of the human beta-globin (hub) locus are expressed in erythroid cells and are thightly regulated during development and differentiation. Mutations in several regions of the locus are involved in beta-thalassemia. We used this well characterized model in order to study different regulation mechanisms that are mediated by transcription factors expressed in erythroid cells. We were interested in the important role of the cis element HS2 from the Locus control region. This region contains several binding sites for transcription factors that are involved in hub locus gene regulation. Our results show that HS2 has a role in chromatin organization of the locus which is distinct from its enhancer function. Moreover, HS2 is not essential for high level beta gene expression while it is important for gamma gene expression. This suggest that the influence of transcription factors recruited to HS2 varies during development. Secondly, we investigated HS2 importance during erythroid differentiation. It was reported the HS2 deletion strongly influences chromatin potentiation of beta gene. Potentiation in progenitor cells favors gene transcriptional activation in mature cells. We characterized transcription factor recruitment to HS2 and b promoter in hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC). Our results show that EKLF is involved in chromatin potentiation and favors the recruitment of BRG1, p45 and CBP in HPC. GATA-1 expression in mature erythroid cells allows GATA-1 recruitment to hub locus in these cells. These data suggest that EKLF and GATA-1 combination is required to allow maximal beta gene activation in mature erythroid cells. Another factor involved in hub locus regulation is Ikaros. We studied its recruitment to hub locus and found that Ikaros is involved in gamma gene repression. Our data also shows that GATA-1 is involved in the repression of these genes and that it interacts with Ikaros. Together, Ikaros and GATA-1 favors the formation of a repressive complex to gamma promoters. In this study, we also observed that Ikaros and GATA-1 are involved in Gata2 gene repression. Interestingly, we have also characterized the repression mechanism of Hes1 gene (a Notch target gene) during erythroid differentiation. Similar to what is observed for gamma genes, Hes1 is also repressed by Ikaros and GATA-1. Collectivelly, our data suggest that Ikaros and GATA-1 combination is associated with the repression of several genes in erythroid cells. Globally, this thesis reports new mechanisms of action for different transcription factors in erythroid cells. Particularly, our work allows us to propose a model for hub locus gene regulation during development and differentiation. Moreover, we show for the first time that the combination of Ikaros and GATA-1 is relevant for gene regulation in erythroid cells. Several mutations in the transcription factors that we studied were associated with beta-thalassemia or leukemia. Our work will thus help to better understand mechanisms of action of these transcription factors in order to potentially use them as therapeutical targets.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2007. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 130 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.

O sulforafano (SFN) é um composto natural que possui propriedades antioxidantes, estimulando, principalmente, o sistema antioxidante endógeno celular. Este composto está associado a uma via clássica de ativação, a via do fator eritroide nuclear tipo 2 (Nrf2). Entretanto, estudos mais recentes têm demonstrado que a ação do SFN também pode se dar pela via do coativador 1-alfa do receptor ativado por proliferador do peroxissoma (PGC-1α). A diferença da via de ativação pelo SFN parece ter relação com o tempo de exposição das células a este composto. Visto que o SFN é uma importante estratégia terapêutica no combate ao estresse oxidativo, que está relacionado ao desenvolvimento de diversas doenças cardiovasculares, a investigação do seu mecanismo de ação é necessária. A análise in vitro é uma ferramenta importante para a investigação das vias e tempos de incubação envolvidos na ação antioxidante do SFN. Sendo assim, a cultura primária de cardiomiócitos de ratos adultos é um dos modelos que pode ser utilizado, sendo a sua principal vantagem, o fato da fisiologia destas células se aproximar mais das condições fisiológicas in vivo. O objetivo deste estudo, então, foi analisar a estimulação de defesas antioxidantes feita pelo SFN, através das vias do Nrf2 e do PGC-1α, em tempos diferentes, utilizando a técnica de cultura de cardiomiócitos adultos. Ratos Wistar machos foram eutanasiados, para que seus corações fossem retirados e submetidos ao processo de isolamento de células cardíacas, em aparelho de Langendorff modificado. As células foram isoladas através da perfusão do coração com solução de Krebs e colagenase tipo II, por um período de 30 minutos. Após isso, as células isoladas foram plaqueadas e mantidas em incubadora a 37°C e 5% de CO2. Foi realizado o tratamento com 5 μM de SFN e/ou 5 μM de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2). As células foram divididas nos seguintes grupos experimentais: Controle, SFN, H2O2 e SFN+H2O2. Os grupos foram subdivididos em dois tempos de incubação: 1 e 24 horas. Foram realizadas as análises dos níveis totais de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) e de lipoperoxidação (LPO); atividade das enzimas antioxidantes superóxido dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) e glutationa s-transferase (GST); expressão proteica das isoformas citosólica (SOD-1) e mitocondrial (SOD-2) da SOD, e dos fatores Nrf2 e PGC-1α. Os resultados do trabalho mostram que, em relação ao tempo de 1 hora, o SFN incubado por 24 horas aumentou em 59% a atividade da SOD, 55% a expressão proteica da SOD-1, 24% a expressão proteica da SOD-2 e 69% a expressão proteica do PGC-1α. A expressão do Nrf2 foi 17% maior no tempo de 1 hora, em relação a 24 horas. Em relação à atividade da catalase e aos níveis de ROS e de LPO, houve diferença somente nos grupos incubados por 1 hora, nos quais a atividade da CAT foi menor no grupo H2O2, os níveis de ROS estavam diminuídos no grupo SFN, e os níveis de LPO estavam maiores no grupo H2O2. Não foram encontradas diferenças em relação à atividade da GST. Como conclusão, o SFN demonstrou um papel protetor nos grupos 1 hora, impedindo a geração de ROS e de dano a lipídeos, apesar de não apresentar um efeito expressivo sobre as enzimas antioxidantes. O efeito dos tempos de incubação na expressão do Nrf2 (aumentada em 1 hora) e do PGC-1α (aumentada em 24 horas) mostrou que realmente há uma relação temporal entre a sinalização destas duas vias, ativadas pelo SFN. Este resultado é instigante para que futuras análises dessa relação temporal das vias do SFN sejam realizadas. / Sulforaphane (SFN) is a natural compound that has antioxidant properties, mainly stimulating the endogenous cellular antioxidant system. This compound is associated with a classical pathway of activation, the nuclear erythroid factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. However, more recent studies have shown that the action of SFN can also occur through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α). The difference in the pathway of activation by SFN seems to be related to the time of exposure of the cells to this compound. Since SFN is an important therapeutic strategy in the fight against oxidative stress, which is related to the development of various cardiovascular diseases, the investigation of its mechanism of action is necessary. In vitro analysis is an important tool for investigating the pathways and incubation times involved in the antioxidant action of SFN. Thus, a primary culture of adult mouse cardiomyocytes is one of the models that can be used, the main advantage being that the physiology of these cells are closer to the physiological conditions in vivo. The objective of this study was to use adult cardiomyocyte culture technique to analyze the stimulation of antioxidant defenses by SFN through Nrf2 and PGC-1α pathways at different times. Male Wistar rats were euthanized, so that their hearts were removed and submitted to the process of isolation of cardiac cells, in modified Langendorff apparatus. Cells were isolated by perfusion of the heart with Krebs solution and type II collagenase for a period of 30 minutes. After that, the isolated cells were plated and incubated at 37°C and 5% CO2. Treatment was performed with 5μM SFN and/or 5μM hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Cells were divided into the following experimental groups: Control, SFN, H2O2 and SFN+H2O2. The groups were subdivided into two incubation times: 1 and 24 hours. Analyzes of total oxygen reactive species (ROS) and lipoperoxidation (LPO) levels were performed; activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione s-transferase (GST); protein expression of citosolic (SOD-1) and mitochondrial (SOD-2) isoforms of SOD, as well as Nrf2 and PGC-1α factors. The results of this work show that, compared to 1 hour time, SFN incubated for 24 hours increased SOD activity by 59%, SOD-1 protein expression by 55%, SOD-2 protein expression by 24%, and 69% PGC-1α protein expression. Expression of Nrf2 was 17% higher at 1 hour, over 24 hours of incubation. Regarding catalase activity and ROS and LPO levels, there were differences only in the groups incubated for 1 hour, in which the CAT activity was lower in H2O2 group, the ROS levels were decreased in SFN group, and levels of LPO were higher in H2O2 group. No differences were found in relation to GST activity. In summary, SFN demonstrated a protective role in 1 hour groups, preventing generation of ROS and lipid damage, although it does not present an expressive effect on the expression of antioxidant enzymes. The effect of incubation times on expression of Nrf2 (increased by 1 hour) and PGC-1α (increased by 24 hours) showed that there is actually a temporal relationship between the signaling of these two pathways, activated by SFN. This result is instigating for future analyzes of this temporal relationship of SFN pathways to be performed.

O sulforafano (SFN) é um composto natural que possui propriedades antioxidantes, estimulando, principalmente, o sistema antioxidante endógeno celular. Este composto está associado a uma via clássica de ativação, a via do fator eritroide nuclear tipo 2 (Nrf2). Entretanto, estudos mais recentes têm demonstrado que a ação do SFN também pode se dar pela via do coativador 1-alfa do receptor ativado por proliferador do peroxissoma (PGC-1α). A diferença da via de ativação pelo SFN parece ter relação com o tempo de exposição das células a este composto. Visto que o SFN é uma importante estratégia terapêutica no combate ao estresse oxidativo, que está relacionado ao desenvolvimento de diversas doenças cardiovasculares, a investigação do seu mecanismo de ação é necessária. A análise in vitro é uma ferramenta importante para a investigação das vias e tempos de incubação envolvidos na ação antioxidante do SFN. Sendo assim, a cultura primária de cardiomiócitos de ratos adultos é um dos modelos que pode ser utilizado, sendo a sua principal vantagem, o fato da fisiologia destas células se aproximar mais das condições fisiológicas in vivo. O objetivo deste estudo, então, foi analisar a estimulação de defesas antioxidantes feita pelo SFN, através das vias do Nrf2 e do PGC-1α, em tempos diferentes, utilizando a técnica de cultura de cardiomiócitos adultos. Ratos Wistar machos foram eutanasiados, para que seus corações fossem retirados e submetidos ao processo de isolamento de células cardíacas, em aparelho de Langendorff modificado. As células foram isoladas através da perfusão do coração com solução de Krebs e colagenase tipo II, por um período de 30 minutos. Após isso, as células isoladas foram plaqueadas e mantidas em incubadora a 37°C e 5% de CO2. Foi realizado o tratamento com 5 μM de SFN e/ou 5 μM de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2). As células foram divididas nos seguintes grupos experimentais: Controle, SFN, H2O2 e SFN+H2O2. Os grupos foram subdivididos em dois tempos de incubação: 1 e 24 horas. Foram realizadas as análises dos níveis totais de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) e de lipoperoxidação (LPO); atividade das enzimas antioxidantes superóxido dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) e glutationa s-transferase (GST); expressão proteica das isoformas citosólica (SOD-1) e mitocondrial (SOD-2) da SOD, e dos fatores Nrf2 e PGC-1α. Os resultados do trabalho mostram que, em relação ao tempo de 1 hora, o SFN incubado por 24 horas aumentou em 59% a atividade da SOD, 55% a expressão proteica da SOD-1, 24% a expressão proteica da SOD-2 e 69% a expressão proteica do PGC-1α. A expressão do Nrf2 foi 17% maior no tempo de 1 hora, em relação a 24 horas. Em relação à atividade da catalase e aos níveis de ROS e de LPO, houve diferença somente nos grupos incubados por 1 hora, nos quais a atividade da CAT foi menor no grupo H2O2, os níveis de ROS estavam diminuídos no grupo SFN, e os níveis de LPO estavam maiores no grupo H2O2. Não foram encontradas diferenças em relação à atividade da GST. Como conclusão, o SFN demonstrou um papel protetor nos grupos 1 hora, impedindo a geração de ROS e de dano a lipídeos, apesar de não apresentar um efeito expressivo sobre as enzimas antioxidantes. O efeito dos tempos de incubação na expressão do Nrf2 (aumentada em 1 hora) e do PGC-1α (aumentada em 24 horas) mostrou que realmente há uma relação temporal entre a sinalização destas duas vias, ativadas pelo SFN. Este resultado é instigante para que futuras análises dessa relação temporal das vias do SFN sejam realizadas. / Sulforaphane (SFN) is a natural compound that has antioxidant properties, mainly stimulating the endogenous cellular antioxidant system. This compound is associated with a classical pathway of activation, the nuclear erythroid factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. However, more recent studies have shown that the action of SFN can also occur through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α). The difference in the pathway of activation by SFN seems to be related to the time of exposure of the cells to this compound. Since SFN is an important therapeutic strategy in the fight against oxidative stress, which is related to the development of various cardiovascular diseases, the investigation of its mechanism of action is necessary. In vitro analysis is an important tool for investigating the pathways and incubation times involved in the antioxidant action of SFN. Thus, a primary culture of adult mouse cardiomyocytes is one of the models that can be used, the main advantage being that the physiology of these cells are closer to the physiological conditions in vivo. The objective of this study was to use adult cardiomyocyte culture technique to analyze the stimulation of antioxidant defenses by SFN through Nrf2 and PGC-1α pathways at different times. Male Wistar rats were euthanized, so that their hearts were removed and submitted to the process of isolation of cardiac cells, in modified Langendorff apparatus. Cells were isolated by perfusion of the heart with Krebs solution and type II collagenase for a period of 30 minutes. After that, the isolated cells were plated and incubated at 37°C and 5% CO2. Treatment was performed with 5μM SFN and/or 5μM hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Cells were divided into the following experimental groups: Control, SFN, H2O2 and SFN+H2O2. The groups were subdivided into two incubation times: 1 and 24 hours. Analyzes of total oxygen reactive species (ROS) and lipoperoxidation (LPO) levels were performed; activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione s-transferase (GST); protein expression of citosolic (SOD-1) and mitochondrial (SOD-2) isoforms of SOD, as well as Nrf2 and PGC-1α factors. The results of this work show that, compared to 1 hour time, SFN incubated for 24 hours increased SOD activity by 59%, SOD-1 protein expression by 55%, SOD-2 protein expression by 24%, and 69% PGC-1α protein expression. Expression of Nrf2 was 17% higher at 1 hour, over 24 hours of incubation. Regarding catalase activity and ROS and LPO levels, there were differences only in the groups incubated for 1 hour, in which the CAT activity was lower in H2O2 group, the ROS levels were decreased in SFN group, and levels of LPO were higher in H2O2 group. No differences were found in relation to GST activity. In summary, SFN demonstrated a protective role in 1 hour groups, preventing generation of ROS and lipid damage, although it does not present an expressive effect on the expression of antioxidant enzymes. The effect of incubation times on expression of Nrf2 (increased by 1 hour) and PGC-1α (increased by 24 hours) showed that there is actually a temporal relationship between the signaling of these two pathways, activated by SFN. This result is instigating for future analyzes of this temporal relationship of SFN pathways to be performed.

No / Flavonoids are plant-derived polyphenolic compounds with neuroprotective properties. Recent work suggests that, in addition to acting as hydrogen donors, they activate protective signalling pathways. The anti-oxidant response element (ARE) promotes the expression of protective proteins including those required for glutathione synthesis (xCT cystine antiporter, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase and glutathione synthase). The use of a luciferase reporter (ARE-luc) assay showed that the dietary flavan-3-ol (-)epicatechin activates this pathway in primary cortical astrocytes but not neurones. We also examined the distribution of NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), a key transcription factor in ARE-mediated gene expression. We found, using immunocytochemistry, that Nrf2 accumulated in the nuclei of astrocytes following exposure to tert-butylhydroquinone (100 microM) and (-)epicatechin (100 nM). (-)Epicatechin signalling via Nrf2 was inhibited by wortmannin implicating a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent pathway. Finally, (-)epicatechin increased glutathione levels in astrocytes consistent with an up-regulation of ARE-mediated gene expression. Together, this suggests that flavonoids may be cytoprotective by increasing anti-oxidant gene expression.