Gliotransmitters dérivés de l'astrocyte glutamate et l'ATP modulent l'activité neuronale. Cependant, il reste à savoir comment les astrocytes contrôlent la libération et coordonnent les actions de ces gliotransmetteurs. Dans la première partie de ma thèse, en utilisant l'expression transgénique de la canalrhodopsine 2 (ChR2) sensible à la lumière dans les astrocytes, nous avons observé que la photostimulation augmentait de manière fiable le potentiel d'action des neurones pyramidaux de l'hippocampe. Cette excitation repose principalement sur une libération de glutamate dépendant du Ca2+ par les astrocytes qui active les NMDR neuronaux extrasynaptiques. Remarquablement, nos résultats montrent que l'augmentation de Ca2+ induite par ChR2 et la libération ultérieure de glutamate sont amplifiées par l'activation autocrine induite par l'ATP/ADP des récepteurs P2Y1 sur les astrocytes. Ainsi, l'excitation neuronale est favorisée par une action synergique de la signalisation glutamatergique et purinergique autocrine dans les astrocytes. Ce nouveau mécanisme peut être particulièrement pertinent pour les conditions pathologiques dans lesquelles la concentration extracellulaire d'ATP est augmentée et agit comme un signal de danger majeur. Dans la seconde partie de ma thèse, nous rapportons que la photostimulation sélective des astrocytes ChR2 dans le gyrus denté facilite la transmission synaptique excitatrice sur les cellules granulaires via l'activation des NMDR pré-synaptiques contenant GluN2B. De plus, nous avons découvert que l'élévation intracellulaire du Ca2+ induite par l'ATP et dérivée de l'ATP contrôlait étroitement la libération du glutamate par les astrocytes au cours de la photostimulation des astrocytes. Nos résultats fournissent des preuves d'une relation étroite entre l'ATP dérivé d'astrocyte et le glutamate. / Astrocyte-derived gliotransmitters glutamate and ATP modulate neuronal activity. It remains unclear, however, how astrocytes control the release and coordinate the actions of these gliotransmitters. In the first part of my thesis, using transgenic expression of the light-sensitive channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2) in astrocytes, we observed that photostimulation reliably increases action potential firing of hippocampal pyramidal neurons. This excitation relies primarily on a Ca2+-dependent glutamate release by astrocytes that activates neuronal extra-synaptic NMDRs. Remarkably, our results show that ChR2-induced Ca2+ increase and subsequent glutamate release are amplified by ATP/ADP-mediated autocrine activation of P2Y1 receptors on astrocytes. Thus, neuronal excitation is promoted by a synergistic action of glutamatergic and autocrine purinergic signaling in astrocytes. This new mechanism may be particularly relevant for pathological conditions in which ATP extracellular concentration is increased and acts as a major danger signal. In the second part of my thesis, we report that selective photostimulation ChR2 positive astrocytes in dentate gyrus facilitates excitatory synaptic transmission onto granule cells via the activation of pre-synaptic GluN2B-containing NMDRs. Moreover, we discovered that astrocyte-derived ATP-mediated intracellular Ca2+ elevation tightly controls glutamate release from astrocytes during astrocyte photostimulation. Our results provide evidence for a close relationship between astrocytic-derived ATP and glutamate.

MTOR est une sérine/thréonine kinase appartenant au complexe mTORC1 (mTOR Complexe 1), un régulateur clé de la traduction. Ce complexe joue un rôle au sein de la LTP (Potentialisation à Long Terme), une forme de plasticité synaptique qui requiert la synthèse de nouvelles protéines pour renforcer la transmission synaptique. La première partie de ma thèse porte sur les mécanismes de régulation de la voie mTORC1 dans les neurones. Dans les cellules non neuronales, cette voie de signalisation est classiquement régulée par deux voies distinctes. D’une part, les acides aminés induisent le recrutement du complexe mTORC1 à la membrane des endo-lysosomes où la protéine Rheb est enrichie et favorisent ainsi l’activation de mTORC1. D’autre part, les facteurs de croissance activent mTORC1 en stimulant la voie PI3K/Akt/TSC/Rheb. Nos résultats indiquent que les neurones sont capables d’ "utiliser" le mécanisme responsable de la translocation de mTORC1 en réponse à la supplémentation en acides aminés pour coupler l’induction de la plasticité synaptique à l’activation de mTORC1. En effet, les récepteurs NMDA et le BDNF, deux acteurs centraux de la LTP, augmentent le recrutement de mTORC1 à la membrane des endo-lysosomes même en absence d’acides aminés, et activent mTORC1. Par des stratégies induisant la translocation de mTORC1 à la membrane des endo-lysosomes, nous avons montré que ce mécanisme est important pour l’activation de mTORC1 mais n’est pas suffisant : il faut également une activation de la protéine Rheb. Le second aspect de mon projet porte sur la régulation de mTORC1 dans le cadre de la maladie d’Alzheimer, une maladie neurodégénérative caractérisée par une perte progressive de la mémoire. Les déficits cognitifs s’accompagnent d’un dysfonctionnement progressif des synapses suivi par la perte neuronale, tous deux causés par une accumulation anormale du peptide amyloïde β (Aβ). Les données de la littérature montrent que les oligomères toxiques du peptide Aβ (AβO) inhibent la plasticité synaptique dans les stades précoces de la maladie. Cependant, les mécanismes restent obscurs. Plusieurs études mettent en évidence une altération de la voie mTORC1. Nos résultats montrent que les AβO inhibent le recrutement de mTORC1 à la membrane des endo-lysosomes. Ce mécanisme est rétabli par une inhibition pharmacologique de l’AMPK. Ainsi, ces données indiquent que les AβO inhibent l’adressage de mTORC1 aux compartiments endo-lysosomaux via l’AMPK. Cela aurait pour conséquence une inhibition de la synthèse protéique décrite dans la littérature et contribuerait ainsi au dysfonctionnement synaptique. / MTOR is a serine/threonine kinase that belongs to mTORC1 (mTOR complex 1), a key regulator of translation. This complex is involved in LTP (Long Term Potentiation), a form of synaptic plasticity requiring new protein synthesis to reinforce synaptic transmission. The first part of my thesis investigates the mechanism of mTORC1’s regulation in neurons. In non-neuronal cells, mTORC1 pathway is commonly activated by two distinct pathways. On the one hand, amino acids induce mTORC1 recruitment to the membrane of endo-lysosomes where Rheb is enriched and can thus promote mTORC1 activation. On the other hand, growth factors activate mTORC1 via the PI3K/Akt/TSC/Rheb pathway. Our results indicate that neurons are capable of “using” amino acid-induced translocation of mTORC1 to connect synaptic plasticity induction to mTORC1 activation. Indeed, NMDA receptors and BDNF, two main actors of synaptic plasticity, increase mTORC1 recruitment to the membrane of endo-lysosomes even in the absence of amino acids, and activate mTORC1. Using strategies targeting mTORC1 to endo-lysosomes, we show that this mechanism promotes activation of mTORC1 but is not sufficient: Rheb activation is also required. The second part of my project is focused on the regulation of mTORC1 in Alzheimer’s disease, a neurodegenerative pathology characterized by a progressive memory loss. Cognitive deficits are widely believed to result from a progressive dysfunction of synapses, followed by a loss of neurons, both caused by an abnormal accumulation of the amyloid β peptide (Aβ). Data from others show that toxic Aβ oligomers (AβOs) inhibit synaptic plasticity at early stages of the disease. However, the mechanisms remain poorly understood. Several studies indicate an alteration of the mTORC1 pathway. Our results show that AβOs inhibit mTORC1 recruitment to the membrane of endo-lysosomes and that this effect can be rescued by a pharmacological inhibition of AMPK. Thus our data indicate that AβOs inhibit mTORC1 translocation to endo-lysosomal compartments via AMPK. This could lead to the impairment of protein synthesis reported in other studies and thus alter synaptic function.

<p>The neurosteroids constitute a group of powerful hormones synthesized and acting in the central nervous system. They participate in a number of important central processes, such as memory and learning, mood and neuroprotection. Their effects emerge from rapid interactions with membrane bound receptors, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, the gamma-amino-butyric acid receptor and the sigma 1 receptor. The mechanisms of action are separate from classical genomic interactions. </p><p>The aims of this thesis were to identify and characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of nanomolar concentrations of neurosteroids at the NMDA receptor. </p><p>The results show that the neurosteroids pregnenolone sulfate (PS) and pregnanolone sulfate 3α5βS) differently modulate the NMDA receptor, changing the kinetics for the NMDA receptor antagonist ifenprodil, through unique and separate targets at the NR2B subunit. The effects that appear to be temperature independent were further confirmed in a calcium imagining functional assay. A second functional study demonstrated that PS and 3α5βS affect glutamate-stimulated neurite outgrowth in NG108-15 cells. </p><p>Misuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has powerful effects on emotional states. Since neurosteroids regulate processes involved in mood it can be hypothesised that AAS can interact with the action of neurosteroids in the brain. However, chronic administration of the AAS nandrolone decanoate did not alter the allosteric effects of PS or 3α5βS at the NMDA receptor, but changed the affinity for PS, 3α5βS and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the sigma 1 receptor. The results also showed that the neurosteroids displace ³H-ifenprodil from the sigma 1 and 2 receptors without directly sharing the binding site for ³H-ifenprodil at the sigma 1 receptor. The decreased affinity for the neurosteroids at the sigma 1 receptor may be involved in the depressive symptoms associated with AAS misuse.</p><p>The NMDA receptor system is deeply involved in neurodegeneration and the NMDA receptor antagonist ifenprodil exert neuroprotective actions. The findings that neurosteroids interact with ifenprodil at the NMDA receptor may be an opportunity to obtain synergistic effects in neuroprotective treatment.</p>

The neurosteroids constitute a group of powerful hormones synthesized and acting in the central nervous system. They participate in a number of important central processes, such as memory and learning, mood and neuroprotection. Their effects emerge from rapid interactions with membrane bound receptors, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, the gamma-amino-butyric acid receptor and the sigma 1 receptor. The mechanisms of action are separate from classical genomic interactions. The aims of this thesis were to identify and characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of nanomolar concentrations of neurosteroids at the NMDA receptor. The results show that the neurosteroids pregnenolone sulfate (PS) and pregnanolone sulfate 3α5βS) differently modulate the NMDA receptor, changing the kinetics for the NMDA receptor antagonist ifenprodil, through unique and separate targets at the NR2B subunit. The effects that appear to be temperature independent were further confirmed in a calcium imagining functional assay. A second functional study demonstrated that PS and 3α5βS affect glutamate-stimulated neurite outgrowth in NG108-15 cells. Misuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has powerful effects on emotional states. Since neurosteroids regulate processes involved in mood it can be hypothesised that AAS can interact with the action of neurosteroids in the brain. However, chronic administration of the AAS nandrolone decanoate did not alter the allosteric effects of PS or 3α5βS at the NMDA receptor, but changed the affinity for PS, 3α5βS and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the sigma 1 receptor. The results also showed that the neurosteroids displace 3H-ifenprodil from the sigma 1 and 2 receptors without directly sharing the binding site for 3H-ifenprodil at the sigma 1 receptor. The decreased affinity for the neurosteroids at the sigma 1 receptor may be involved in the depressive symptoms associated with AAS misuse. The NMDA receptor system is deeply involved in neurodegeneration and the NMDA receptor antagonist ifenprodil exert neuroprotective actions. The findings that neurosteroids interact with ifenprodil at the NMDA receptor may be an opportunity to obtain synergistic effects in neuroprotective treatment.

Female reproductive senescence is widespread among mammalian species, but menopause is limited to species with menstrual cycles. While hormonal changes at menopause have profound impacts in the lives of women at middle age, the complex mechanisms underlying this process remain obscure. All three levels of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis are involved in reproductive aging, and evidence highlights a critical role for the dysregulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons, the hypothalamic cells that drive reproductive function. To investigate neuroendocrine mechanisms that may initiate and perpetuate reproductive decline at each step in the transition to acyclicity, I utilized an ovarian-intact middle-aged female rat model of natural reproductive senescence. These studies focused on three hypothalamic nuclei that are known to control GnRH activity: the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV), the site of positive hormone feedback onto GnRH neurons; the arcuate nucleus (ARC), the site of negative feedback; and the median eminence (ME), the site of GnRH release, with the following specific aims: 1) Characterize neuroendocrine gene and protein expression in female rats throughout the natural transition to acyclicity; 2) Determine the effects of chronic N-methyl-D-asparate receptor subunit 2b (NMDAR-NR2b) inhibition in acyclic females; and 3) Examine neuroendocrine gene expression during premature reproductive senescence after perturbation of the HPG axis. The results of these studies identified novel molecular and cellular changes with age and reproductive cycle status in the ARC and ME, two regions that are underappreciated for their roles in reproductive senescence. Surprisingly, few molecular targets were identified in the AVPV, a region that is much better-studied in this context. In the ME and ARC, I found changes in transcription factors and evidence of altered hormone feedback via changes in sex steroid hormone receptors and enzyme expression with reproductive aging. I also discovered decreased expression of genes for the excitatory neuropeptides, kisspeptin and neurokinin B, as well as decreased percentage of kisspeptin immunoreactive cells and their co-expression with estrogen receptor alpha in the ARC. And finally, in the ME, neurotrophic factor expression was changed with age, and the presence and phosphorylation state of the NR2b subunit of the NMDA receptor contributes to a greater inhibitory tone with acyclicity. Together these studies have identified novel pathways, especially in the ARC and ME, that are related to reproductive decline. Furthermore, changes in the hypothalamic neural and glial network of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, hormone receptors and other transcription factors are likely contributing to altered responses to hormonal feedback and decreased excitatory drive for GnRH release. / text

Recent evidence indicates that the mature neocortex retains a higher degree of plasticity than traditionally assumed. Up- and down-regulation of synaptic strength, long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), is thought to be the primary mechanism mediating experience-dependent plasticity of cortical networks. The present thesis investigate factors that regulate adult cortical plasticity, focusing on the role of neuromodulators, recent sensory experience, and different anatomical divisions of the cortex in influencing synaptic strength. First, I investigated the role of the neuromodulator histamine in gating plasticity in the primary visual cortex (V1) of urethane anesthetized adult rats. Histamine applied locally in V1 produced an enhancement of LTP elicited by theta burst stimulation (TBS) of dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) and allowed a sub-threshold TBS to produce stable LTP. Second, the impact of visual deprivation on LTP in V1 was assessed. Animals that received 2 and 5 hr dark exposure showed greater potentiation of field potentials when stimulated though retinal light flashes or weak TBS of the dLGN, which failed to induce LTP in control animals kept in continuous light. Third, I performed a detailed characterization of LTP induced by different TBS protocols, recording in either the monocular or binocular segment of both V1 hemispheres (i.e., ipsi- and contralateral to the stimulated dLGN). Stronger, NMDA receptor-independent LTP was found in the contralateral V1. Interestingly, weak TBS induced LTD that was NMDA receptor-dependent in the ipsilateral V1. Furthermore, a lower LTP induction threshold was observed in the binocular than the monocular segment of ipsilateral V1. Lastly, I investigated cholinergic modulation of sensory-induced activity in the barrel cortex. Basal forebrain stimulation enhanced multi-unit activity elicited by whisker deflection, an effect that was more pronounced for weaker response driven by a secondary whisker than principal whisker deflection. This thesis demonstrates that neocortical plasticity consists of multiple forms of synaptic modification. Adult cortical plasticity is greatly influenced by preceding activity of the synapse by various neuromodulator systems, and by anatomical subdivisions within primary sensory cortex fields. Together, these mechanisms may facilitate the detection, amplification, and storage of inputs to primary sensory fields of the neocortex. / Thesis (Ph.D, Psychology) -- Queen's University, 2010-04-29 14:02:30.742

Stress promotes the use of methamphetamine and other recreational substances and is often implicated in relapse to stimulant use. Thus, it is of critical importance to examine the consequences of the co-occurance of stress and methamphetamine use. Activity of the glutamatergic N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor system appears to be involved in the neurotoxic effects of both chronic stress and methamphetamine exposure. The current studies investigated the hypothesis that chronic pre-exposure to the stress hormone corticosterone (CORT) results in an increase of NMDA receptor activity and that this will potentiate the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine (METH). Co-cultures of the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, and medial prefrontal cortex were pre-exposed to CORT (1 μM) for 5 days prior to co-exposure to METH (100 μM) for 24 hours to investigate the combined effects on neurotoxicity and protein density of NMDA receptor subunits. The combination of CORT and METH resulted in significant neurotoxicity within the medial prefrontal cortex compared to either CORT or METH alone. The CORT+METH-induced toxicity was attenuated by co-exposure to the NMDA receptor antagonist (2R)-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV; 50 μM) during the 24 hour CORT and METH co-exposure. Although CORT alone did not significantly alter the density of the NR1 and NR2B subunits of the NMDA receptor, METH exposure for 24 hours resulted in a significant loss of the polyamine sensitive NR2B subunit. Co-exposure to CORT and METH also resulted in decreased extracellular glutamate while not significantly altering extracellular dopamine. These results suggest an enhancement of NMDA receptor systems or downstream effectors in areas of the mesolimbic reward pathway following chronic pre-exposure to CORT, which leads to enhanced neuronal vulnerability to future excitotoxic insults. This may be of critical importance as use of psychostimulants such as METH and other drugs of abuse may produce excitotoxic events in these areas, thus further compromising neuronal viability.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder affecting cognitive function. 1 in 4 individuals exposed to a life-threatening event may develop PTSD, which is characterised by symptoms of hyperarousal, avoidance and intrusions. Although treatment is effective in most cases, the response is far from satisfactory. It is now clear that novel drug treatment and a better understanding of the neurobiology of PTSD are necessary if we are to realise a better response and treatment outcome in these patients. Glutamatergic pathways play an important role in cognition, while recent studies have emphasized a causal role for glutamate in PTSD, and of the potential value of glutamate receptor modulators in treating the disorder. Stress-related elevation in glutamate exerts detrimental effects on cognition, especially via activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, and has been implicated in PTSD associated cognitive deficits. Recently, the cr-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type glutamate receptor has been found to exert a modulatory action on NMDA receptor function. Ampakines are positive allosteric modulators of the AMPA receptor, and have demonstrated beneficial effects in animal models of learning as well as antidepressant action, and to improve short-term memory in humans. The aims of this study were firstly to study the effects of the ampakine, Org 26576, on spatial memory performance in healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats. Secondly, since PTSD is associated with pronounced deficits in cognition, we studied the ability of Org 26576 to modify stress-evoked spatial memory deficits in rats subjected to single prolonged stress (SPS), a putative animal model of PTSD. In both cases, neuroreceptor studies were performed to determine any relationship between hippocampal and cortical NMDA receptor binding characteristics and effects on spatial memory performance. After exposure of the animals to either normal handling or SPS conditions, spatial memory performance was assessed using a 5 day memory acquisition and consolidation protocol in a modified version of the Morris water maze (MWM). Experimental and control groups both received either saline (1 ml/kg i.p.) or Org 26576 at incremental doses of 1, 3 or 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally twice daily for 12 days. Separate groups of animals were used for the neuroreceptor studies, except that behavioural testing was not performed. 24hrs after drug treatment discontinuation, the animals were sacrificed and frontal cortex and hippocampus removed for NMDA receptor binding analysis. In normal rats, Org 26576 3 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg exerted a short-lasting reduction in escape latency on day 1, but which lost prominence over the subsequent training days. Org 26576 1, 3 and 10 mg/kg, however, significantly improved spatial memory retrieval on day 5. No changes in frontal cortical or hippocampal NMDA receptors were observed. Contrary to expected, rats subjected to SPS failed to express noteworthy deficits in spatial memory as previously described. Treatment of SPS-exposed animals with Org 26576 did not significantly alter spatial learning evident in SPS animals on day 1 of acquisition training, as well as on subsequent training days. Org 26576 1 mg/kg increased spatial memory retrieval compared to the unstressed saline control, but not compared to the SPS group. Org 26576 only at a dose of 1 mg/kg decreased cortical, but not hippocampal NMDA receptor density (Bmax) in SPS animals versus unstressed but not saline treated SPS animals. No changes in receptor affinity (Kd) were noted. Org 26576 therefore improves early initial spatial learning in healthy rats, but exerts a lesser effect on memory consolidation over the remainder of the training period. However, Org 26576 significantly improves retrieval of spatial memory without simultaneous changes in frontal cortical and hippocampal NMDA receptor binding. Org 26576 thus may benefit both short-term and long-term memory processes in normal animals without effects on limbic NMDA receptor binding, and provides a rationale for testing in conditions that present with cognitive disturbances. However, the SPS model failed to engender marked deficits in spatial memory performance; this result ultimately complicated the interpretation of the combined stress-drug treatment studies. Studies in healthy animals therefore conclude that Org 26576 is an effective agent to enhance long-term memory processes and should be investigated further for its possible application in disorders of cognition. Although the value of Org 26576 in an animal model of PTSD were inconclusive, further studies in SPS and other PTSD models, as well as models of relevance for schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease and depression, are encouraged. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder affecting cognitive function. 1 in 4 individuals exposed to a life-threatening event may develop PTSD, which is characterised by symptoms of hyperarousal, avoidance and intrusions. Although treatment is effective in most cases, the response is far from satisfactory. It is now clear that novel drug treatment and a better understanding of the neurobiology of PTSD are necessary if we are to realise a better response and treatment outcome in these patients. Glutamatergic pathways play an important role in cognition, while recent studies have emphasized a causal role for glutamate in PTSD, and of the potential value of glutamate receptor modulators in treating the disorder. Stress-related elevation in glutamate exerts detrimental effects on cognition, especially via activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, and has been implicated in PTSD associated cognitive deficits. Recently, the cr-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type glutamate receptor has been found to exert a modulatory action on NMDA receptor function. Ampakines are positive allosteric modulators of the AMPA receptor, and have demonstrated beneficial effects in animal models of learning as well as antidepressant action, and to improve short-term memory in humans. The aims of this study were firstly to study the effects of the ampakine, Org 26576, on spatial memory performance in healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats. Secondly, since PTSD is associated with pronounced deficits in cognition, we studied the ability of Org 26576 to modify stress-evoked spatial memory deficits in rats subjected to single prolonged stress (SPS), a putative animal model of PTSD. In both cases, neuroreceptor studies were performed to determine any relationship between hippocampal and cortical NMDA receptor binding characteristics and effects on spatial memory performance. After exposure of the animals to either normal handling or SPS conditions, spatial memory performance was assessed using a 5 day memory acquisition and consolidation protocol in a modified version of the Morris water maze (MWM). Experimental and control groups both received either saline (1 ml/kg i.p.) or Org 26576 at incremental doses of 1, 3 or 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally twice daily for 12 days. Separate groups of animals were used for the neuroreceptor studies, except that behavioural testing was not performed. 24hrs after drug treatment discontinuation, the animals were sacrificed and frontal cortex and hippocampus removed for NMDA receptor binding analysis. In normal rats, Org 26576 3 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg exerted a short-lasting reduction in escape latency on day 1, but which lost prominence over the subsequent training days. Org 26576 1, 3 and 10 mg/kg, however, significantly improved spatial memory retrieval on day 5. No changes in frontal cortical or hippocampal NMDA receptors were observed. Contrary to expected, rats subjected to SPS failed to express noteworthy deficits in spatial memory as previously described. Treatment of SPS-exposed animals with Org 26576 did not significantly alter spatial learning evident in SPS animals on day 1 of acquisition training, as well as on subsequent training days. Org 26576 1 mg/kg increased spatial memory retrieval compared to the unstressed saline control, but not compared to the SPS group. Org 26576 only at a dose of 1 mg/kg decreased cortical, but not hippocampal NMDA receptor density (Bmax) in SPS animals versus unstressed but not saline treated SPS animals. No changes in receptor affinity (Kd) were noted. Org 26576 therefore improves early initial spatial learning in healthy rats, but exerts a lesser effect on memory consolidation over the remainder of the training period. However, Org 26576 significantly improves retrieval of spatial memory without simultaneous changes in frontal cortical and hippocampal NMDA receptor binding. Org 26576 thus may benefit both short-term and long-term memory processes in normal animals without effects on limbic NMDA receptor binding, and provides a rationale for testing in conditions that present with cognitive disturbances. However, the SPS model failed to engender marked deficits in spatial memory performance; this result ultimately complicated the interpretation of the combined stress-drug treatment studies. Studies in healthy animals therefore conclude that Org 26576 is an effective agent to enhance long-term memory processes and should be investigated further for its possible application in disorders of cognition. Although the value of Org 26576 in an animal model of PTSD were inconclusive, further studies in SPS and other PTSD models, as well as models of relevance for schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease and depression, are encouraged. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Στόχος: Ο υποδοχέας του γλουταμινικού οξέος ΝMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate), αποτελεί μόριο-κλειδί που διαμεσολαβεί πολλούς τύπους συναπτικής πλαστικότητας στο κεντρικό νευρικό σύστημα. Στο οπτικό σύστημα η πλαστικότητα ξεκινά στο επίπεδο του αμφιβληστοειδούς χιτώνα. Κατά την ανάπτυξη του αμφιβληστροειδούς οι υποδοχείς NMDA συμμετέχουν σε φαινόμενα πλαστικότητας εξαρτώμενα από την εμπειρία όπως ο λειτουργικός διαχωρισμός των ON και OFF μονοπατιών. Η ανάπτυξη και η οπτική αποστέρηση επηρεάζουν επίσης τις ηλεκτροφυσιολογικές ιδιότητες των υποδοχέων NMDA στον αμφιβληστροειδή του επίμυος καθώς και την έκφραση των υπομονάδων του NR1 και NR2. Η βασική υπομονάδα NR1 υφίσταται εναλλακτικό μάτισμα με αποτέλεσμα να εμφανίζεται σε οκτώ διαφορετικές ισομορφές που προσδίδουν μοριακή ποικιλότητα στον υποδοχέα. Το ερώτημα που ετέθη ήταν εάν η έκφραση των ισομορφών της υπομονάδας NR1 ρυθμίζεται κατά την ανάπτυξη του αμφιβληστροειδούς χιτώνα του επίμυος και εάν μεταβάλλεται από την οπτική εμπειρία. Μέθοδος: Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν αμφιβληστροειδείς επίμυων (Wistar) που μεγάλωσαν είτε σε φυσιολογικό ημερήσιο κύκλο 12 ώρες φως/12 ώρες σκοτάδι [normal-reared (NR)], είτε σε διαρκές σκοτάδι [dark-reared (DR)] από την 9η έως την 60η ημέρα μετά τη γέννηση. Η μελέτη της έκφρασης των ισομορφών του αμινοτελικού (NR1a, NR1b) και του καρβοξυτελικού (NR1-1, NR1-2, NR1-3, NR1-4) άκρου της υπομονάδας NR1 έγινε με τη μέθοδο της real-time PCR. Αποτελέσματα: Το αναπτυξιακό προφίλ όλων των ισομορφών εμφάνισε διαφορετική αύξηση κατά τη διάρκεια της δεύτερης και τρίτης εβδομάδας, με μέγιστη έκφραση στο τέλος της τρίτης εβδομάδας. Μεταξύ των ισομορφών του αμινοτελικού άκρου, η NR1b εκφραζόταν σταθερά σε υψηλότερα επίπεδα σε σχέση με την NR1a, ενώ μεταξύ των ισομορφών του καρβοξυτελικού άκρου, η NR1-2 εκφραζόταν σε υψηλότερα επίπεδα από την NR1-4, ενώ τόσο η NR1-1 όσο και η NR1-3 εκφράζονταν σε χαμηλά επίπεδα. Η ανάπτυξη στο σκοτάδι μείωσε την έκφραση όλων των ισομορφών σε πολλά αναπτυξιακά στάδια και στο ενήλικο ζώο. Σημαντική αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ ηλικίας και οπτικής εμπειρίας προέκυψε για τις ισομορφές NR1a, NR1-2 και NR1-4. Συμπεράσματα: Η έκφραση όλων των ισομορφών της υπομονάδας NR1 μεταβάλλεται κατά την ανάπτυξη του αμφιβληστροειδούς του επίμυος, ενώ ορισμένες (NR1a, NR1-2 and NR1-4) ρυθμίζονται τόσο από την ηλικία όσο και από την οπτική εμπειρία. Τέτοιες μεταβολές μπορεί να παίζουν σημαντικό ρόλο σε φαινόμενα πλαστικότητας που λαμβάνουν χώρα στον αμφιβληστροειδή χιτώνα. / Purpose: The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) type of glutamate ionotropic receptor is a key molecule mediating plasticity related processes in the central nervous system. Visual system plasticity begins in the retina. During postnatal retinal development NMDA receptor has been shown to be involved in experience dependent plasticity such as the functional segregation of ON and OFF pathways. Development and visual deprivation have been found to affect the kinetics of NMDA receptor in rat retina and the expression of its main subunits NR1 and NR2. The NR1 fundamental subunit of NMDA receptor exists in eight distinct splice isoforms. Knowing that alternative splicing of the NR1 subunit offers a further molecular diversity to the receptor, we have addressed the question of whether the alternative splicing of NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor is regulated during postnatal retinal development and whether this regulation is altered by visual experience. Methods: Retinas were dissected from eyes of Wistar rats raised either in normal 12-hour light/12-hour dark cycle [normal-reared (NR)], or in complete darkness [dark-reared (DR)] at postnatal days 9 to 60. Real-time PCR was performed in order to assess the mRNA expression of NR1 isoforms using oligonucleotide primers specific for N- terminal (NR1a, NR1b) and C-terminal splice variants (NR1-1, NR1-2, NR1-3, NR1-4). Results: The developmental profiles of mRNA expression levels of both N- and C-terminal NR1 isoforms showed differential increases during the second and third postnatal weeks, while their expression peaked at the end of the third week. Among N-terminal isoforms NR1b was constantly expressed at higher levels compared to NR1a and among the C-terminal isoforms, NR1-2 was expressed at higher levels than NR1-4, while both NR1-1 and NR1-3 were expressed at low levels. Dark-rearing led to reductions in both N- and C-terminal NR1 variants in several developmental ages and in adult retina. A significant age and experience interaction was observed at NR1a N-terminal isoform, and at the most abundant C-terminal isoforms NR1-2 and NR1-4. Conclusions: Our results have demonstrated that all NR1 splice isoforms are developmentally regulated in rat retina and some of them (NR1a, NR1-2 and NR1-4) are also bidirectionally regulated by age and visual experience. Such changes may play an important role in the plastic and activity-dependent events taking place in retina.