The Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona is a peer-reviewed monograph series sponsored by the School of Anthropology. Established in 1959, the series publishes archaeological and ethnographic papers that use contemporary method and theory to investigate problems of anthropological importance in the southwestern United States, Mexico, and related areas.

"June 2000." / Includes bibliographical references (p. 37).

In the mid-19th century, the Fort Vancouver employee Village was one of the most diverse settlements on the Pacific Coast. Trappers, tradesmen, and laborers from Europe, North America, and Hawaii worked and lived within a highly stratified colonial social structure. Their homes have been the site of archaeological research for nearly 50 years, but the architectural features and artifacts have received limited attention. Inspired by an 1845 description of the Village that described houses that were "as various in form" as their occupants (Hussey 1957:218), this study examined community-level social relationships in this 19th-century fur trade community through vernacular architecture and landscape. This thesis presents the life histories and layouts of five Village houses. The architectural analysis relied on data from features, square nails, window glass, and bricks. The resulting architectural interpretations were synthesized to explore the larger vernacular landscape of the Village and investigate whether the house styles reflect processes of creolization and community development, or distinction and segregation among the Village residents. The houses all stem from a common French-Canadian architectural tradition, built by the first employees at Fort Vancouver, but the life histories also revealed that the houses were occupied (and repaired) by a second wave of employees at some time during the 1840s. A reminder that Village houses deposits may reflect multiple owners, and should not be conceptualized as the result of a single household. Finally, this thesis demonstrates that nuanced architectural data that can yet be learned from past excavation assemblages when the many nails, bricks, and window glass specimens are reanalyzed using current methods.

This thesis represents one of the first systematic, detailed spatial analyses of artifacts at the mid-19th century Hudson's Bay Company's Fort Vancouver Village site, and of clay tobacco pipe fragments in general. Historical documents emphasize the multi-cultural nature of the Village, but archaeologically there appears to be little evidence of ethnicity (Kardas 1971; Chance and Chance 1976; Thomas and Hibbs 1984:723). Following recent approaches to cultural interaction in which researchers examined the nuanced uses of material culture (Lightfoot et al 1998; Martindale 2009; Voss 2008); this study analyzed the spatial distribution of tobacco pipe fragments for behavioral information through a practice theory approach (Bourdieu 1977; Ortner 2006). The analysis aimed to determine the role of tobacco smoking in the Village. It evaluated tobacco smoking as a significant and social behavior, the visibility of maintenance behaviors in the clay pipe distributions, and evidence of ethnic variation in tobacco consumption. Spatial patterning characteristics were compiled from the few behavioral studies of clay pipe fragments (Davies 2011; Fox 1998: Hamilton 1990; Hartnett 2004; Hoffman and Ross 1973, 1974; King and Miller 1987), and indications of ethnic specific behaviors from archaeological and historical evidence (Burley et al 1992; Jacobs 1958; Jameson 2007). Distributional maps examined three pipe assemblage characteristics: fragment frequency, use wear fragment frequency, and the bowl to stem fragment ratio, to define smoking locations on the Village landscape. Visibility of maintenance and refuse disposal behaviors in the size distribution of fragments was measured through the Artifact Size Index (ASI) (Bon Harper and McReynolds 2011). This analysis also tested two possible indications of ethnic variation: differential use of stone vs. clay pipes, and consumption rates as reflected through clay pipe assemblages. The commonality of tobacco smoking locations across the landscape suggests a significant, social, and shared practice between households. Analysis of maintenance behaviors and ethnic variation proved inconclusive. This study demonstrates the value of spatially analyzing clay pipe fragment distributions for behavioral information. The insight gained from examining multiple spatial patterns suggests future studies can benefit from analyzing the spatial distribution of diagnostic characteristics of pipes and other artifact types.

The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), a mercantile venture that was founded by royal charter in 1670, conceived, constructed and ran Fort Vancouver as its economic center in the Pacific Northwest, a colonial outpost at the edge of the company's holdings in North America. Research into the history of the HBC revealed that the company was motivated by mercantile interests, and that Fort Vancouver operated under feudal land policies while steadily adopting a hierarchical structure. Following the work of Marxist archaeologist Mark Leone whose work in Annapolis, Maryland explored the effects of capitalist ideology on archaeological assemblages of ceramics, this study sought to locate the material signatures of ideologies in the ceramic assemblages recovered from the Fort and its adjacent multi-ethnic Village sites. In Annapolis, matching sets of ceramics were used as a material indicator of the successful penetration of capitalist ideals of segmentation, division and standardization that accompanied the carefully cultivated ideology of individualism, into working class households. Following this model, this study analyzed six assemblages for the presence of matched sets of ceramic tablewares using the diversity measures of richness and evenness. The results of this analysis for five assemblages from households in the Village were then compared to those expected for a model assemblage that was inferred to represent the ultimate model of participation in and dissemination of the same ideals of segmentation and division: that recovered from the Chief Factor's House within the fort. Documentary research confirmed that ideology was used to indoctrinate workers into the unique relations of production at Fort Vancouver however it was an ideology of paternal allegiance to the company rather than one of possessive individualism, as in Annapolis. At Fort Vancouver the notion of individuality was subtly downplayed in favor of one that addressed the company's responsibility to its workers and encouraged them to view its hierarchy, which was reinforced spatially, socially and economically, as natural. Analysis of the archaeological assemblages revealed that it is unlikely that the Village assemblages are comprised of complete sets of matching ceramicwares. The lack of these sets is likely the result of the multivalent nature of the economic system at the fort and its distinct ideology of paternalism, as well as the diverse backgrounds and outlooks of the Village occupants themselves, who appear to have purchased and used these European ceramics in unique ways.

How much can we learn by analyzing ceramics, the most commonly found artifact type at an archaeological site? During the mid-eighteenth century, English potters introduced creamware, a white-bodied earthenware with a yellow tinted glaze. Creamware is a useful tool in understanding the social, cultural, and economic changes that took place during the late eighteenth century. Creamware was one of the first fashionable wares that was affordable to the "middling sorts." At the Narbonne House in Salem, Massachusetts, a large quantity of creamware was recovered through archaeological excavations, including over 13,000 sherds, comprising over 250 vessels, most of which were owned by the widow Mary Andrew and her family who lived there from 1780–1820. After conducting a minimum vessel count and analysis of style, I concluded that Mary Andrew and her children were purchasing creamware to appear genteel to their family and neighbors. Appearance was important since the Andrews were related to some of Salem's most elite merchant families including the Gardners, Derbys, and Hodges. Being well connected—though not wealthy—Mary Andrew purchased stylish goods that she could afford in larger quantities rather than spending her money on smaller sets of more expensive wares. This conscious decision illustrates that creamware was not only an important mark of gentility, but was also a way to create identity, especially for a well-connected, but not affluent widow. Her husband's final request was that his legacy be used to improve the home, presumably to continue his family's upward mobility in society. Though creamware cannot answer all of the questions we have about the past, it provides us with answers to issues relating to consumer choice and creation of identity through material goods. Many consumer studies in historical archaeology terminate in interpretations of economic status; creamware in particular allows archaeologists and other scholars to explore other motivations concerning consumption and what ownership meant to the family and for people whose voices may otherwise be unheard in history, such as widowed women.

Issues of diversity are receiving significant attention within the National Park Service recently, due in large part to a growing awareness that its future as a relevant and viable agency is dependent upon improving its response to and management of diversity. A diversity assessment of Fort Vancouver National Historic Site was undertaken to assist the site in its diversification efforts involving three interrelated areas: historical interpretation, visitor services, and workforce management. Data from research and semi-formal interviews with staff and volunteers were analyzed to identify appropriate, site-specific strategies for expanding dynamic interpretation of diverse groups within the historical context, improving the quality of visitation for diverse audiences, and more fully utilizing personnel and community organizations to strengthen the two topics outlined above. Historical interpretation is the main focus of the analysis, not only because it forms the fundamental duty of the historic site, but also because diversifying an interpretive program carries the most potential for forming emotional and intellectual connections with diverse visitors, thus increasing participation, financial security, and continued relevance. / Graduation date: 2000

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida State University, 2007. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (p. 173-185).

Master of Science / Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and Recreation Resources / Ted Cable / National parks reach out to millions of people each year by offering a number of recreational and educational experiences. People are exposed to new ideas and experiences in a national park that they may not get anywhere else. At Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site in Topeka, Kansas, the National Park Service (NPS) compels visitors to step into the shoes of African American students in a segregated elementary school through the use of interpretive exhibits. This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the interpretive exhibits at Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site. Most visitors sampled (91%) were visiting for the first time, indicating that the site does not have many repeat visitors. Race and the American Creed, the 30 minute film that plays in the auditorium, was found the most impactful exhibit by 34.3% of visitors surveyed. Expressions and Reflections, the temporary exhibit in the Kindergarten room, was the second most impactful exhibit, at 21.6% of visitors surveyed. The least impactful exhibit was the film Pass It On, at 0.9% of visitors surveyed. As a whole, visitors were most impacted by dynamic exhibits with a clear theme, while static exhibits and those that did not have a clear theme were not as impactful. This research will help guide Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site staff as they contemplate future changes in the interpretive exhibits.

This dissertation traces the history of cattle grazing at Saguaro NP, Organ Pipe Cactus NM and Fort Bowie NHS in southern Arizona. This collection of studies examines the factors affecting that use, the ranchers who made their living from the landscape, and the federal land managers responsible for sustaining the natural and cultural resources. A dominant industry on arid public lands since the Civil War, grazing was altered by a variety of influences: environmental and human-derived. Ranching communities developed from homesteading settlements. Success was determined by climate, topography, and natural resources; social and cultural pressures; economic events and political legislation; and later federal regulations and decisions. The first agency to oversee grazing, USFS was under constant pressure to maximize short-term human benefits. The NPS Organic Act of 1916 mandated conservation of natural resources "by such means as will leave them unimpaired for future generations" and yet approved cattle grazing, an extractive use, under USFS management. Park managers were frustrated by grazing practices not under their control. Parks were at a cultural and social disadvantage. Residents and politicians often expressed displeasure at park reservations; communities feared that parks would interfere with local industries. Park employees supervised visitors and developed recreation infrastructure; they came with little experience to manage livestock. Lack of funding for research, limited manpower, and political and administrative interference allowed cattle grazing to continue unregulated for decades altering vegetation and enhancing erosion. In the 1960s, changing values from the environmental movement, the waning power of the livestock industry, and the rise of activist scientists impelled NPS to act. Without monitoring data, NPS turned to legal opinions to terminate grazing. Now grazing is regulated and carefully monitored. NPS is mandated to incorporate research results into management decisions. Older grazing permits are being retired, but land acquisitions for park additions add new management challenges. Purchasing permits offers a new but financially limited opportunity to protect sensitive lands. Grazing has ended at all three parks, yet ecological changes and historic structures remain. As cultural and administrative legacies, those remnants offer opportunities to interpret a significant regional tradition and an untold controversy.