Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services - Marriage and Family Therapy / Joyce Baptist / There has been a decline in marriage rates in the U.S., with Black persons showing the lowest numbers in relation to other racial groups. Unlike previous generations where marriage was associated with a sense of familism, today marriage is associated with individual growth and the creation of a fulfilling relationship. To better understand how single Black women manage the tension between individuality and togetherness, a phenomenological study was conducted to explore the lived experience of singlehood of six Black women. Findings support Knudson-Martin‟s (1996) reframed concept of differentiation and previous studies pertaining to family and community values' influence on perspectives about gendered roles in marriage. Gendered power imbalance appears to be a main contributor to ambivalence about marriage although marriage remained to be valued and desired. Findings can prevent helping professionals from imposing our socialized worldview that values intact families, marriage, and gendered power equity on single Black clients. Clinical and research implications are discussed.

Master of Science / Department of Special Education, Counseling and Student Affairs / Doris Wright Carroll / Privilege and its’ impact on the racial and social constructs of fraternity and sorority life is an issue that has plagued the past and continues to determine the future. The examination of literature and the application of both Critical Race Theory and Critical Race Feminist Theory provides the theoretical framework for defining this issue. While White privilege does not answer all questions regarding race and how it determines sorority and fraternity membership, it does seek to address issues surrounding the traditions and customs in fraternity and sorority life. Additionally, in using a Critical Race Feminist perspective it seeks to address issues regarding the formalized sorority recruitment process used by traditionally White sororities and its impact on multicultural students. As a result of the findings within the literature, the traditional practices fraternities and sororities cling to only further draw discriminatory barriers between traditionally White Greek organizations and potential multicultural members. Furthermore, if this issue is not addressed within both higher education and Greek life it could signal further racially dividing issues. With the impact of biracial and multiracial students becoming more prevalent on campuses, student affairs practitioners must work to redefine what race and ethnicity mean in terms of student affiliation and involvement. Future research must study the impact of segregated governing organizations and their impact on creating cohesion between multicultural and traditionally White fraternal organizations.

Master of Science / Department of Marriage and Family Therapy / Joyce Baptist / Universities around the country are consistently focusing on increasing diversity among the student population, yet little is known about how minority graduate student populations fair academically and personally in predominately White institutions, specifically African American graduate students. This qualitative study examines the lived experiences of six African American graduate students. Participants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide on their experiences in a predominately White graduate program. The findings support previous research that indicates that social conditions have not changed and minority students are still not well integrated into their programs. Findings also suggest that although Berry’s (1987) model of acculturation can be used to conceptualize the experience of African American undergraduate students, the experience of graduate students is more complex, and only partially supported by this model. Suggestions for how universities can better improve the environment for African American graduate students are included.

Doctor of Philosophy / School of Family Studies and Human Services / Karen S. Myers-Bowman / Perceptions of family influence as a source of motivation to attend college were explored. More specifically, the purpose of this study was to investigate how, and in what ways, families shaped the pathway to higher education among 12 African American male collegians. Comparisons of these perceptions across family compositions and an extant model of family influence and college choice were also explored. The students in this study attended both public and private 4-year historically Black and predominantly White colleges situated throughout seven states in the Midwest and the South. A phenomenological qualitative research approach was employed to forward this study. Also, interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) techniques were applied to data gleaned from face-to-face interviews. Results of the study revealed two overarching themes of family influence and college choice for African American males: (1) deliberate family involvement and (2) contextual family influences. Eight subthemes illuminate the overarching theme deliberate family involvement: (1) emphasizing hard work, (2) aiding with pre-college paperwork, (3) offering messages about value of college, (4) supporting extra-curricular activities, (5) encouraging positive decision-making, (6) cultural indoctrination, (7) providing affirming words and praise, and (8) regular accessibility. Four subthemes buttress the overarching theme contextual family influence: (1) family educational choices, (2) family participation, (3) family representation and reactions, and (4) family stress. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are also presented.

Master of Science / Department of Apparel, Textiles, and Interior Design / Melody LeHew / The purpose of this study was to explore how African American women think and feel about their bodies. Specifically, this study examined how Black women define beauty by means of variables such as body shape, skin complexion, and hair texture; whether African American women ages 18-30 compared themselves to media images; and if so, did comparison to these media images impact African American women’s body satisfaction. In addition, this study explored if African American women felt pressure to adopt beauty standards attributed to the dominant culture, as well as the role of racial identity in forming beauty standards and social comparison behavior. Twelve African American women were interviewed and findings of this exploratory research illustrated that the Black community has different standards than the traditional beauty standards of the U.S. Even though interviewees articulated standards of beauty for women in the Black community, there was a lack of uniformity in how these women felt about their own attractiveness: some identified with the Black beauty standards, while others did not. In addition, opinions varied regarding Black women’s engagement in social comparison behavior and whether it was related to racial identity or body satisfaction. Limitations of study included: how Black women define social comparison behavior and racial identity, self-identification of participants, and the lack of Caucasian women included in this study. However, this research still provided rich data exploring Black women’s perceptions of beauty among other issues within the Black community. Future research is required to better understand influences shaping standards of beauty within this subculture of the United States and recommendations are provided in the last chapter.

Master of Science / Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and Recreation Resources / Ted Cable / National parks reach out to millions of people each year by offering a number of recreational and educational experiences. People are exposed to new ideas and experiences in a national park that they may not get anywhere else. At Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site in Topeka, Kansas, the National Park Service (NPS) compels visitors to step into the shoes of African American students in a segregated elementary school through the use of interpretive exhibits. This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the interpretive exhibits at Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site. Most visitors sampled (91%) were visiting for the first time, indicating that the site does not have many repeat visitors. Race and the American Creed, the 30 minute film that plays in the auditorium, was found the most impactful exhibit by 34.3% of visitors surveyed. Expressions and Reflections, the temporary exhibit in the Kindergarten room, was the second most impactful exhibit, at 21.6% of visitors surveyed. The least impactful exhibit was the film Pass It On, at 0.9% of visitors surveyed. As a whole, visitors were most impacted by dynamic exhibits with a clear theme, while static exhibits and those that did not have a clear theme were not as impactful. This research will help guide Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site staff as they contemplate future changes in the interpretive exhibits.

Master of Regional and Community Planning / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Mary Catherine (Katie) Kingery-Page / In the United States, minorities are less physically active and in turn at higher risk for heart disease, diabetes and obesity. The purpose of my study is to examine the factors that influence physical activity in neighborhood parks and to answer: What aspects of park design and programming discourage physical activity participation in African American women? My goal is to identify barriers to physical activity and make recommendations for improving design and programming of a neighborhood park. The results of my research are relevant to the planning profession because planners can use public policy to combat inequality in the built environment. Many studies have related recreation access to socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, age, and gender. While African American women are not the only disadvantaged population when it comes to access to recreation, they do have a higher risk for obesity. In trying to answer why African American women have higher rates of obesity, some studies have found that while willingness to participate in physical activity does not differ in white and black women, duration of physical activity does. My research employs a mixed methods approach to understand the barriers to physical activity experienced by African American women, in context of a neighborhood park. This study uses a physical assessment of James Mulligan Park and the surrounding neighborhood within Alexandria, Virginia. Following the physical assessment I piloted a survey to gather information on the barriers to physical activity. The pilot guided a final survey of seventeen participating African American women in the neighborhood. I hypothesized that the perception of park safety will have an effect on the rate of physical activity in African American women. This hypothesis points to a general barrier for all women. Based on literature review, I also expected to find barriers unique to African American women. The study concluded that African American women in this neighborhood share some barriers with all women and they also expressed some barriers unique to African American women. I found that personal barriers like “exercise tires me” was the most common, rather than perceptions of safety. In addition, I found culturally specific barriers, such as “exercising is not my cultural activity” and “I avoid exercise to protect my hairstyle.” Based on my analysis of the setting and surveys I make several recommendations for the park and neighborhood.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Hyung Jin Kim / Obesity levels—related to an increase of physical inactivity—are rapidly rising in the United States (CDC 2010; Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion 2008). Reportedly, African-American women have the highest obesity rates when compared to any other demographic in the United States—especially those residing in crime-plagued urban environments (CDC 2010). Yet active living strategies by designers have been least effective amongst this demographic (Day 2006). Researchers report crime-safety perceptions are one of the biggest environmental factors influencing physical activity levels amongst low-income African-American women (Foster and Giles-Corti 2008; Codinhoto 2009). Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) has been the most common practice towards an intervention of criminal activity in the built environment; however, little practice has addressed both CPTED and physical activity. While first and second generation crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) are inclusive of addressing both physical and social aspects of the built environment (Cleveland and Seville 2008; Griffin et al. 2008; Dekeseredy et al. 2009), they have yet to effectively address crime-safety needs and its potential relationship with physical activity behaviors of low-income African-American women and their neighborhoods. Therefore, what built environment changes tailored for this target population—African- American women—are necessary? This study examines 1) what crime safety perceptions of the built environment are affecting low--income African American women’s physical activity levels in Kansas City, Missouri and 2) what design solutions these women suggest could help increase their physical activity levels, through improving their perceptions of neighborhood safety. As a place-specific study on a low income neighborhood in Kansas City, Missouri, selected through GIS suitability analyses with literature-based criteria, this study used survey and focus group interview methods to identify the target group’s design suggestions. The findings resulted with a connection from research to design solutions—neighborhood and street-level design strategies with CPTED guidelines linking the researched participant’s perceptions of crime in their built environment to the effect of crime on their own physical activity.

Doctor of Philosophy / School of Family Studies and Human Services / Walter Schumm / Farrell J. Webb / There is considerable research on concepts of Blackness in America. Much of this research is conducted within a Eurocentric as opposed to an Afrocentric perspective. Social research has established that ideals, social norms, and values about Black minority groups may be shaped by dominant culture premises and that the dominant culture of any society can influence the attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors of minority group members coexisting within that culture. The White racial frame holds that over time a dominant cultural perspective in the U.S. has installed a positive orientation to “White” and whiteness and a strong negative orientation toward racial “others”, particularly toward Black Americans. The present research explores this phenomenon from an Afrocentric perspective, assessing propinquity preferences of non-native Immigrant and native-born American Blacks toward native-born Blacks. Utilizing data drawn from The National Survey on American Life 2001-2003 (Jackson, 2007) the study assessed the degree of Black propinquity (i.e., self-identified feelings of closeness and identity preferences with native-born Blacks) expressed within and between subsamples of native-born African American (n = 3,464) and non-native (chiefly Afro-Caribbean) Blacks (n = 1,118). More specifically, it hypothesized that native-born Blacks would display greater propinquity preferences than Immigrant Blacks for native-American Blacks depicted as more economically-challenged as well as socially affluent and elite; also, it expected they would report greater support for socially undesirable as well as socially desirable Blacks than would Immigrant Blacks. A series of hierarchical regression analyses modeled the unique and joint predictive variance of socio-demographic, socio-economic, and Black (derived) target characteristics within each Black subpopulation against the primary outcome variable (propinquity). Overall regression models for each Black group were highly similar in the proportion of explained variance (27% for native Blacks; 26% for Immigrant Blacks) and weighted contributions of three blocks of variables; derived variables for Black target characteristics contributed most of the total variance within each group. No statistically reliable differences for R score values were found between the two Black subpopulations on these derived variables. Findings are discussed in the context of the White racial frame perspective, secondary data methodology, and future research.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Curriculum and Instruction / Kay Ann Taylor / This qualitative case study investigated the teaching strategies that improve science learning of African American students. This research study further sought the extent the identified teaching strategies that are used to improve African American science learning reflect culturally responsive teaching. Best teaching strategies and culturally responsive teaching have been researched, but there has been minimal research on the impact that both have on science learning, with an emphasis on the African American population. Consequently, the Black-White achievement gap in science persists. The findings revealed the following teaching strategies have a positive impact on African American science learning: (a) lecture-discussion, (b) notetaking, (c) reading strategies, (d) graphic organizers, (e) hands-on activities, (f) laboratory experiences, and (g) cooperative learning. Culturally responsive teaching strategies were evident in the seventh-grade science classrooms observed. Seven themes emerged from this research data: (1) The participating teachers based their research-based teaching strategies used in the classroom on all of the students’ learning styles, abilities, attitudes towards science, and motivational levels about learning science, with no emphasis on the African American student population; (2) The participating teachers taught the state content standards simultaneously using the same instructional model daily, incorporating other content areas when possible; (3) The participating African American students believed their seventh-grade science teachers used a variety of teaching strategies to ensure science learning took place, that science learning was fun, and that science learning was engaging; (4) The participating African American students genuinely liked their teacher; (5) The participating African American students revealed high self-efficacy; (6) The African American student participants’ parents value education and moved to Success Middle School district for better educational opportunities; and (7) Teachers were not familiar with the term “culturally responsive teaching,” but there was evidence that several aspects of it were present in the seventh-grade science classroom environment. Critical Race Theory (CRT) was the framework for analysis and interpretation of this research study. The findings support the following tenets of CRT: (a) racism is normal, (b) interest-convergence or colorblindness, (c) contextual-historical analysis, (d) storytelling or counterstorytelling, and (e) social transformation. These findings indicate that racial inequalities remain an issue in the underachievement of African Americans and may be the solution to improving science learning of African Americans. The outcome of this study contributes to the limited research on utilizing culturally responsive teaching along with best teaching strategies to improve academic achievement of African American students, and CRT exposes the issues that contribute to the Black-White achievement gap in science widening.