Compounds from the marine environment exhibit a wide variety of biological activities, and thus hold much promise as potential drugs. The halichondrins, isolated from the Kaikoura sponge Lissodendoryx sp. are no exception to this, demonstrating potent anticancer activity. Novel cytotoxic compounds have also been isolated from the Chatham Rise sponge Lamellomorpha strongylata. Knowledge of the cellular origins of such compounds is desirable, in order to establish if the sponge or associated micro-organisms are producing the compounds of interest. Siderophores are also important molecules, which are produced on demand by bacteria in order to obtain sufficient iron necessary for their growth. Knowledge of the biosynthesis of these compounds has potential for the control of undesirable bacteria, such as the anthrax-causing pathogen Bacillus anthracis. Cell separation studies have been carried out on Lamellomorpha strongylata, locating a swinholide in sponge-associated filamentous bacteria and theonellapeptolides in sponge-associated unicellular bacteria. A microscopic analysis of dissociated cells from Lissodendoryx sp. was also undertaken. The structures of four new halichondrins (3.13 - 3.16), isolated from Lissodendoryx sp., have been determined from spectral data. All of these compounds are very similar to known B series halichondrins, with differences occurring only beyond carbon 44. As biological activity has been shown to be derived from the portion of the molecule between carbons 1 and 35, they all retain good activity in the P388 assay as expected. A new siderophore, petrobactin sulfonate (4.2), was characterised, along with three cyclic imide siderophore derivatives (4.3 - 4.5). Petrobactin sulfonate is the first marine siderophore containing a sulfonated 3,4-dihydroxy aromatic ring. The structures were elucidated from spectral data, resulting in a revision of the NMR assignments of petrobactin.

Photorhabdus are motile Gram-negative bacteria that have a mutualistic association with entomopathogenic Heterorhabditis nematodes. Nematodes vector the bacteria from one insect host to another, while the bacterial symbiont produces toxins and secondary metabolites that kill that the insect host. In this study, we characterize the bacterial symbiont of Heterorhabditis sonorensis, recently discovered in the Sonoran desert. Biochemical and molecular methods including sequence data from five genes: 16s rDNA, gyrB, recA, gltX, dnaN were considered. Evolutionary relationships of this new Photorhabdus subsp. were inferred considering maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses. We also surveyed for secondary metabolites (SM) produced by this microorganism, considering HPLC and mass spectrometry analyses. SM crude extracts showed activity against the corn ear worm Helicoverpa zea, the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae, and the fungus Fusarium oxysporum; and were more toxic that those produced by related species. Results from these studies showed that Photorhabdus l. sonorensis' secondary metabolites have potent antagonistic activity against these plant pathogens.

Merrilactone A (1) was isolated in only 0.004% yield from the methanol extracts of the pericarps of Illicium merrillianum. Structural elucidation of Merrilactone A revealed a compact, cage-like pentacyclic architecture of high molecular complexity, featuring seven stereocentres, five of which as contiguous fully substituted carbon atoms, two γ-lactones and a central oxetane ring. Merrilactone A also exhibits an important neurotrophic activity, significantly promoting neurite outgrowth in the primary cultures of foetal rat cortical neurons at very low concentrations. Structurally, merrilactone A is related to anislactones A and B, a pair of epimeric sesquiterpene dilactones discovered ten years earlier by Kouno and co-workers from the related Illicium anisatum plant. Fukuyama has shown that anislactone B can be converted into merrilactone A using a simple three step sequence, suggesting that the anislactones may be biogenetic precursors to merrilactone A. Described in this thesis are our research efforts directed towards developing a conceptually novel synthetic route enabling regiodivergent total synthesis of both anislactone A / B and merrilactone A. Our synthetic route (around 22 steps) features several key reactions, which include a [2+2] photo-cycloaddition reaction, Tiffeneau-Demjanov ring expansion and titanium(III) mediated radical cyclization.

The aim of this project was to develop a cascade approach towards perhydropyrrolo-[1,2-a]-quinolines and to apply this to the asymmetric synthesis of the gephyrotoxin alkoids. Chapters Two and Three outline the development of a synthetic route towards a range of cascade precursors, whilst Chapter Four outlines investigations into the enamine-Michael cascade. Central to understanding the cascade process was the discovery that the major product of the enamine-Michael cascade was the unusual tricyclic hydroquinium salt. This can subsequently be engaged in a diastereoselective inter- or intramolecular reduction to afford either a trans-perhydro-[1,2-a]-quinoline or a tetracyclic aminal in high overall yield depending on the C1 oxygen substituent.

Chamuvarinin (22) is a unique annoanceaeous acetogenin isolated from the roots of Senegalese medicinal plant Uvaria chamae by Laurens and co-workers in 2004. It displays highly potent cytotoxicity towards the cervical cancer cell lines (KB 3-1, IC₅₀= 0.8 nM). Structurally, chamuvarinin is the first reported acetogenin to contain an adjacently linked bis-THF-THP ring system spanning the C15-C28 carbon backbone. However, initial efforts to assign the relative and absolute configuration within this stereochemical array, on the basis of ¹H and ¹³C NMR analysis, provided only partial information pertaining to the relative configuration of C15-C19 region. As a consequence, 32 diastereomeric structural possibilities exist for the highly unusual structure of chamuvarinin; an unrealistic target for total synthesis. The synthesis of the central core tricyclic (BCD) intermediate represents the most challenging aspect in the entire synthesis, which in turn will aid ultimate structural proof. At the outset of the project the stereochemical configuration of C15-C28 (BCD) of chamuvarinin was uncertain and a library approach was proposed to enable structure elucidation (Scheme A-1). Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 detail the synthesis of possible diastereomers of the C9-C21 (51) and C22-C34 fragments (52). Chapter 4 details the intial strategy to couple the key diastereomeric fragments in a series of model studies. Chapter 5 describes the successful coupling strategy via an revised synthetic approach to reach the advanced C9-C34 intermediate 251 (Scheme A-2).

Biofilms are communities of microorganisms associated with surfaces encased in a protective extracellular matrix. These communities often pose clinical and industrial challenges due to their ability to tolerate biocidal treatments and removal strategies. Understanding the ecological interactions that take place during biofilm establishment is a key element for designing future treatment strategies. In this work, I utilized unique methods for studying factors contributing to cooperative antibiotic detoxification in a polymicrobial biofilm model. Subsequently, I tested a novel compound mixture that exhibited promising antibiofilm properties. Escapin is an L-amino acid oxidase that acts on lysine to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), ammonia, and equilibrium mixtures of several organic acids collectively called Escapin intermediate products (EIP). Previous work showed that the combination of synthetic EIP and H2O2 functions synergistically as an antimicrobial toward diverse planktonic bacteria. To test the combination of EIP and H2O2 on bacterial biofilms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was selected as a model, due to its role as an important opportunistic pathogen. Specifically, I examined concentrations of EIP and H2O2 that inhibited biofilm formation or fostered disruption of established biofilms. High-throughput assays of biofilm formation using microtiter plates and crystal violet staining showed a significant effect from pairing EIP and H2O2, resulting in inhibition of biofilm formation relative to untreated controls or to EIP or H2O2 alone. Similarly, flow cell analysis and confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that the EIP and H2O2 combination reduced the biomass of established biofilms relative to controls. Area layer analysis of biofilms post-treatment indicated that disruption of biomass occurs down to the substratum. Only nanomolar to micromolar concentrations of EIP and H2O2 were required to impact biofilm formation or disruption, which are significantly lower concentrations than those causing bactericidal effects on planktonic bacteria. Micromolar concentrations of EIP and H2O2 combined enhanced P. aeruginosa swimming motility compared to either EIP or H2O2 alone. Collectively, these results suggest that the combination of EIP and H2O2 may affect biofilms by interfering with bacterial attachment and destabilizing the biofilm matrix.

This thesis is concerned with the development of ring-closing iodoamination and ringexpansion methodology and its subsequent application to the asymmetric syntheses of pyrrolidine and piperidine iminosugars. <strong>Chapter 1</strong> highlights the remarkable biological properties displayed by iminosugars and introduces methods for the formation of the pyrrolidine and piperidine sub-classes. <strong>Chapter 2</strong> describes investigations into the ring-closing iodoamination of bishomoallylic amines which occurs with concomitant <i>N</i>-debenzylation to give an iodomethyl pyrrolidine scaffold. Conversion to the corresponding aziridinium species followed by its regioselective intermolecular ring-opening by H₂O enabled the synthesis of (+)-2,5-dideoxy-2,5-imino-Dglucitol (DGDP). A protocol for the preparation of its 1-deoxy-1-amino analogue (+)-ADGDP was also developed. <strong>Chapter 3</strong> details studies into the ring-expansion of iodomethyl pyrrolidine scaffolds via the trapping of CO₂ (from NaHCO₃) to produce cyclic carbonates as single diastereoisomers. Subsequent deprotection of these piperidines allowed the syntheses of (−)-1-deoxymannojirimycin (DMJ) and (+)-1-deoxyallonojirimycin (DANJ) to be completed. <strong>Chapter 4</strong> delineates investigations into the trapping of alternative “X=C=Y” electrophiles, via the ring-expansion methodology developed in Chapter 3, initially utilising a model system. These studies culminated in the development of the trapping of <i>p</i>-TsNCO and the application of this methodology in the total asymmetric syntheses of (−)-ADMJ and (+)-ADANJ, the 2-deoxy-2-amino analogues of (−)-DMJ and (+)-DANJ, respectively. <strong>Chapter 5</strong> contains full experimental procedures and characterisation data for all compounds synthesised in Chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Neutrófilos são a primeira linha de defesa do sistema imunológico, eles produzem substâncias microbicidas, tais como espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO), são capazes de eliminar patógenos e possuem papel importante em processos inflamatórios fisiológicos e patológicos. No entanto, os efeitos benéficos e nocivos mediados por esta célula dependem, em grande parte, do equilíbrio redox, que se estabelece entre a produção de ERO e a ação de antioxidantes. A quebra deste equilíbrio leva ao estresse oxidativo, capaz de causar danos pelas ERO sobre as estruturas biológicas. Sendo assim, a regulação das funções dos neutrófilos é um importante alvo terapêutico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a ação de produtos naturais - extrato bruto, frações e subfrações - oriundas da Antártica na regulação do metabolismo oxidativo de neutrófilos humanos. Para este propósito, o extrato bruto da alga Palmaria decipiens, nove (9) frações do fungo endofítico Aspergillus unguis e nove (9) subfrações deste foram estudadas. As amostras foram avaliadas quanto à atividade scavenger, utilizando-se o 2,2-difenil-?-picrilhidrazil; à citotoxidade aos neutrófilos, por análise da viabilidade celular com o ensaio de exclusão do Azul de Trypan; e ao efeito sobre a produção de ERO pelos neutrófilos, medida por quimiluminescência dependente de luminol, utilizando-se forbol-12-miristato-13-acetato como estímulo para os neutrófilos. Os resultados mostraram que: 1) nenhuma das amostras apresentou atividade scavenger; 2) a viabilidade celular manteve-se igual ou maior que 90% quando neutrófilos foram expostos às frações FR5, FR6*, FR8, e às subfrações contendo 100% Acetato de Etila, 10% Acetato de Etila:Hexano, 20% Acetato de Etila:Hexano e 40% Acetato de Etila:Hexano; 3) dentre as frações que mostraram viabilidade celular maior que 90%, a inibição da produção de ERO pelos neutrófilos foi observada com a FR5 (51%), a FR6* (20%), a subfração 100% Hexano (73%), a subfração 20% Acetato de Etila/Hexano (42%) e a subfração 40% Acetato de Etila/Hexano (38%). Os resultados mostram que algumas das frações e subfrações do fungo endofítico Aspergillus unguis apresentaram inibição da produção de ERO pelos neutrófilos humanos entre (20 a 73%). Esta inibição não é por atividade scavenger de radiciais de oxigênio, sugerindo que este efeito regulador sobre o neutrófilo possa resultar da atividade dos componentes nestas frações sobre outras vias metabólicas desta célula. A partir destes resultados, faz-se necessário identificar a composição destas frações e seus efeitos sobre vias metabólicas e sobre outras funções efetoras dos neutrófilos. A contribuição deste estudo é a procura por moléculas bioativas, capazes de regular parcialmente as respostas do neutrófilo, para restabelecer o equilíbrio funcional desta célula em estados patológicos, diminuindo seus efeitos nocivos sem prejuízo do seu papel crucial para a homeostase. / Neutrophils are the first line of defense of the immune system, they produce microbicidal substances, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), able to eliminate pathogens and play important roles in physiological and pathological inflammatory processes. However, the beneficial and harmful effects mediated by this cell depend on the redox balance, which is established between the production of ROS and the action of antioxidants. The imbalance leads to oxidative stress capable of causing damage by ROS on biological structures. Thus, the regulation of neutrophil functions is an important therapeutic target. The aim of this work was to evaluate the action of natural products - crude extract, fractions and subfractions - originating from Antarctica environment in the regulation of the oxidative metabolism of human neutrophils. For this purpose, the crude extract of the Palmaria decipiens algae, nine (9) fractions of the endophytic fungus Aspergillus unguis and nine (9) subfractions from this fungus were studied. The samples were evaluated for scavenger activity using 2,2-diphenyl-?-picrylhydrazyl; cytotoxicity to neutrophils, by cellular viability analysis with the Trypan Blue exclusion assay; and to the effect on neutrophil production of ROS, as measured by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence, using phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate as a stimulus for neutrophils. The results showed that: 1) none of the samples had scavenger activity; 2) the cell viability remained equal to or greater than 90% when neutrophils were exposed to fractions FR5, FR6*, FR8, and subfractions containing 100% Ethyl Acetate, 10% Ethyl Acetate:Hexane, 20% Ethyl Acetate:Hexane and 40% Ethyl Acetate:Hexane; 3) among the fractions that showed cellular viability greater than 90%, the inhibition of ROS production by neutrophils was observed with FR5 (51%), FR6* (20%), subfraction 100% Hexane (73%), the subfraction 20% Ethyl acetate / Hexane (42%) and subfraction 40% Ethyl acetate / Hexane (38%). The results show that some of the fractions and subfractions of the endophytic fungus Aspergillus unguis showed inhibition of ROS production by human neutrophils between (20 to 73%). This inhibition is not by scavenger activity of oxygen radicals, suggesting that this regulatory effect on the neutrophil may result from the activity of the components in these fractions on other metabolic pathways of this cell. From these results, it is necessary to identify the composition of these fractions and their effects on metabolic pathways and on other effector functions of neutrophils. The contribution of this study is the search for bioactive molecules, able to partially regulate neutrophil responses, to restore the functional balance of this cell in pathological states, reducing its harmful effects without prejudice to its crucial role for homeostasis.

Thesis advisor: James P. Morken / Sesquiterpene quinones are a prolific class of marine natural products that are particularly interesting due to their antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-inhibitory properties. Hundreds of these biologically active molecules are based on decalin frameworks, both cis- as well as trans-fused, however, significantly less synthetic work has focused on targeting the cis-fused series of compounds. In this chapter, progress towards an asymmetric, general route to various sesquiterpene quinones in the cleordane family of natural products will be described. The key steps of the synthesis include a highly convergent and diastereoselective reductive alkylation to forge both the requisite cis-ring fusion well as the all carbon quaternary center, as well as a scandium-catalyzed ring expansion of a 6,5-ring system to deliver the decalin core of the molecule. Additionally, the chapter includes the development and substrate scope of both methodologies utilized in the key complexity building reactions. Iron complexes ligated by bis(imino)pyridine ligands are remarkably active catalysts for a vast range of organic transformations including polymerization, hydrogenation, hydrosilylation, and hydroboration. Whereas much work has been done to probe the importance of the imine-substituents on catalysis, significantly less information is known about the nature of the central pyridine donor. To study the effects of a more donating ligand in which the pyridine is replaced with an N-heterocyclic carbene, a series of novel ligands and their corresponding iron complexes were synthesized and characterized. Whereas imidazole-derived complexes exhibited exclusively bidentate binding modes, 4,5,6-trihydropyrimidylidene-based ligands adopted a tridentate pincer conformation analogous to complexes of bis(imino)pyridines. Bonding in the five-coordinate bis(imino)-N-heterocyclic carbene complex displayed considerably contracted iron-ligand bond distances compared to the analogous bis(imino)pyridine iron complex. The study of physical and electronic structure and bonding in organometallic compounds is a critical for understanding and predicting complex behavior and reactivity. Having synthesized a completely new type of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligand and the corresponding iron complex, a rigorous study of metal-NHC bonding, magnetism, and redox activity in bis(imino)-NHC (or carbenodiimine, CDI) complexes of iron was carried out. A series of oxidation and reduction reactions on CDI complexes of iron were performed, enabling access to complexes spanning from formally iron(0) to iron (III) oxidation states. A battery of spectroscopic and computational methods, including X-ray crystallography, Mössbauer spectroscopy, SQUID magnetometry, and EPR spectroscopy established the CDI ligand as a redox active chelator. Additionally, a unique iron-carbene interaction was discovered, in which the metal center antiferromagnetically couples with the carbon of the NHC. Intent on developing CDI complexes of iron into practical catalysts for both synthetic organic transformations and polymerization, a series of stoichiometric as well as catalytic reactions were carried out to evaluate the reactivity profile of the novel complexes. Halide atom abstraction generated a new cationic species, which demonstrated different coordination chemistry compared to the bis(imino)pyridine analogue. Furthermore, the addition of a hydride or alkyl lithium reagent to the parent (CDI)FeCl2 species resulted in interesting and unexpected reactivity involving the carbene ligand. Preliminary catalytic hydrogenation experiments established (CDI)FeCl2 as a competent catalyst for the reduction of simple alkenes in the presence of Na(Hg) as a reductant under 80 psi of hydrogen. Additionally, the dichloride species could be readily converted into bis(aryloxide) complexes that were active for the polymerization of lactide to produce poly(lactic acid). The polymerization is very controlled (PDI values are <1.3), and polymers with molecular weights of around 35 kDa can be obtained after 3 hours at room temperature. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2014. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

Thesis advisor: Marc Snapper / Thesis advisor: Steven Bruner / Peptide natural products have diverse, elaborate scaffolds and are important leads in the development of new drugs. A complete understanding of the natural biosynthetic pathways of these compounds can improve chemical syntheses and boost bioengineering efforts. There are two classes of peptide natural products: ribosomal and nonribosomal peptides. Ribosomally produced and posttranslationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are produced by the ribosome using the 20 canonical amino acids and undergo extensive tailoring to yield the active natural products. Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are assembled through an enzyme dependent system and can incorporate over 500 different amino and acyl building blocks to impart complexity. These peptides can also undergo additional tailoring to further modify the core peptide. The microviridins are a class of RiPPs that are modified by two ATP dependent ligases to create a total of three macrocyclic bonds. We have solved the three dimensional protein structures of each of these ligases to establish the mechanism of substrate recognition and cyclization. Vancomycin is a NRP that contains five nonproteinogenic aromatic amino acids that are necessary for biological activity. One of these amino acids is derived from a polyketide pathway and undergoes a four-electron oxidation by a cofactor independent dioxygenase, DpgC. We have solved the structure of this enzyme and have established a radical mechanism. We have investigated this mechanism using synthetic probes and mutagenesis. We have examined O₂ binding using molecular dynamics and mutagenesis. NRPs are synthesized by the multidomain, modular nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) in an enzyme templated, ATP-dependent manner. We have synthesized domain specific probes to study the structures and mechanisms of these pathways. Our continued work will provide the insight necessary to manipulate these pathways to provide biologically active compounds. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.