The selection of mortar for conservation of historic and heritage buildings can be challenging. Achieving compatibility with the historic fabric, durability and efficient use of materials within a practical timeframe often requires the use of hydraulic lime-based mortars which set more rapidly than the more traditional air lime mortars. These are considered to be more compatible with historic fabric than cement-based mortars, although, due to the modern production techniques and their natural variability, a deeper knowledge of their chemical and physical properties is needed to minimise damage due to incompatibility and make the decision process easier and safer. Natural hydraulic lime (NHL) binders are currently classified under EN 459-1:2015 in three designations, NHL 2, NHL 3.5 and NHL5, with the suffix representing the minimum compressive strength (in MPa) of a standard mortar mix at 28 days. The performance of NHL binders, manufactured by burning a naturally impure limestone, can be difficult to predict due to the inherent variability of both their physical and chemical characteristics. At the same time, the tolerance values for each classification allow for binders with significantly compressive strength differences to be classified by the same designation. The main aim of this research was to study a range of NHL binders, understand and quantify the variability of their characteristics and to establish how these properties influence the performance of mortars cured under standard and simulated weather conditions. In the first stage of the project, a selection of NHL binders from different origins and distinct designation were rigorously examined through physical, chemical and mineralogical characterisation to elucidate surface area, particle size distribution, oxide composition and crystalline phase composition. The characteristics of the binders were found to vary greatly, particularly amongst binders from the same classification and distinct origins, and in one particular case even from the same origin. A change of properties over time was also identified, binders manufactured in different years could have very different properties, even though, as far as could be ascertained from the packaging, it was the same product. Starting from a selection of 11 NHLs and 1 hydrated lime, the next step involved the manufacture of mortar samples using a sand aggregate appropriate for a conservation mortar with 1:2 ratio (binder:aggregate by volume). Sufficient water was added to produce a spread by flow table of 165 ± 10 mm. These mortars were cured under standard conditions and for a smaller group of binders under simulated weather conditions. For the standard cure conditions, the properties of the binders were compared to the physical properties in terms of strength (from 7 to 1080 days), porosity, capillary water absorption, water vapour permeability and freeze-thaw resistance of mortars made with the binders. The carbonation was also studied by phenolphthalein stain after all the flexural strength tests and after 2 years by XRD. The mortars under climate simulation were studied in terms of mechanical properties (up to 360 days) and carbonation. For comparison purposes, cement-lime (1:1:6 and 1:2:9 cement:lime:aggregate volumetric ratio), lime-metakaolin (MK) (with MK addition of 5, 10 and 20% of the lime mass) and lime putty mortars were manufactured to the same workability as the NHL mortars. These were studied in terms of strength up to 360 days, porosity and water absorption by capillarity action. The strength of the studied mortars does not follow the classification of the binders, with one binder, specified as NHL 2, resulting in a stronger mortar than another binder specified as NHL 5, and one NHL 3.5 mortar surpassing all the other mortars in terms of mechanical strength. The mechanical strength was found to correlate with the hydraulic phases, alite and belite, identified within the binders. The relative long-term performance of the mortars manufactured with the different binders can therefore be predicted based on the mineral properties rather than the standard classification. Pore related properties, such as water vapour permeability and water absorption by capillarity, were found to be related to the water/binder ratio of the NHL mortars. Later in the project, using the standard cured mortars data, a model was developed to predict compressive strength based on the proportion of crystalline phases present in the mortars, the surface area and the water/binder ratio. This model, applied to the studied mortars, was found to predict, with low error, the measured performance of the mortars, meaning that the model can be used as tool to predict mortar strength. The outcomes of this thesis demonstrated that with sufficient knowledge of the underlying chemistry of NHL binders, it is possible to establish the relative performance of mortars, thus making the decision on which binder to use easier and safer for the historic fabric.

Kalkbruk har använts i tusentals år som byggnadsmaterial i byggkonstruktioner.Senare, under 1800-talet, började en variant av hydraulisk kalk, kallad vattenkalk, att användas. Det hydrauliska kalkbruk som används idag i byggnadskonstruktioner såsom fasadmurning, putsning, fogning av murverk har blivit mer vanligt att använda i stället för cementbruk, eftersom det finns fler fördelar med kalkbruk som har hydraulisk inblandning än med det cementbaserade bruket. Kalkbruk används särskilt till renovering av äldre byggnader där kalk eller hydrauliska kalkbruk sedan tidigare har använts. Det hydrauliska kalkbruket utvinns från kalksten men den hydrauliska kalk som bränns av oren kalksten kallas naturligt hydraulisk kalk och tillverkas av Saint-Astier i Frankrike. Kalken har inga hydrauliska tillsatsmedel som cement, gips, flygaska eller puzzolana material. Enligt SS-EN 459–1:2015 klassas den naturliga hydrauliska kalken efter hållfasthet, och tillverkas i tre klasser: NHL 2, NHL 3,5 och NHL 5.Naturliga hydraulisk kalkbruken har för- och nackdelar, Produktens fördelar avses av de som använder bruket överväga nackdelarna. NHL-bruk passar bättre i fuktiga miljöer, det kan återanvändas, är miljövänligt, rent och naturligt, tål mer påfrestningar och driftstiden är mindre. Bakgrunden till arbetet är att NHL-bruks användning har blivit allt vanligare under de senaste decennier vid renovering av äldre kalkputsade byggnader. Väderförhållande och temperatur är av stor betydelse för att ha ett hållbart resultat inom kalkputsarbetet och således kan orsaka en viss försening i tidplaner och byggtider. Emedan nya metoder ska utreda och utvärderas för att få det optimala resultatet.Litteraturstudier, laboratorietester och intervjuer har använts för att kunna nå examensarbetets mål. Flera små tester har gjorts för att undersöka karbonatiseringsprocessen under olika väderförhållandet. Testerna visar att det naturliga kalkbruket karbonatiserar bättre och snabbare i en fuktig miljön, vilket passar det klimat som råder i Norden och i kustklimat. Det naturliga hydrauliska kalkbruket är dock ett material som kräver mer erfarenhet för att kunna uppnå bästa resultat för detta ändamål. Att vädret har stort betydelse för karbonatiseringsprocessen är ett resultat som framkommit i tidigare studier och forskning, vilket också de tester som utförts under detta arbete visar. Arbete med hydrauliska kalkbruk bör därför ske under perioder som passar kalkputsarbetet för att det ska hinna karbonatisera innan det riskerar att utsättas för påfrestning. En lämplig period är därför maj till oktober som den bästa perioder för kalkputsarbete.Naturliga hydrauliska kalkbruk utvecklas kontinuerligt, vilket kan bidra till att de kan ersätta det cementbaserade kalkbruket i framtiden utan några negativa konsekvenser såsom frostsprängning och låg hållfasthet. / The aim of the work was to analyze the carbonation of modern lime plaster with hydraulic mixing. Requirements for a certain carbonation can cause delays in schedules and construction time. The hydraulic lime mill is obtained from limestone, while the hydraulic lime burned by crude limestone is called natural hydraulic lime, which is manufactured by Saint-Astier in France. the lime has no hydraulic additives such as cement, plaster, fly ash or puzzolana materials. Natural Hydraulic lime mills fit better in the humid environment, it can be reused, is environmentally friendly, is clean and natural, can withstand more stress and the operating time is less. During the work, a study visit was made to an ongoing work process at Elin Wägnerskolan in Växjö, which Karlssons fasad AB had taken over the restoration responsibility. Interviews were conducted with one of the players at Målarkalk AB, which is one of the largest suppliers in the lime industry and project manager at Karlssons Fasad AB. Several small tests have been done to see the carbonation process under different weather conditions. The tests show that natural lime farming carbonates better and faster in a humid environment, which suits the Nordic countries and coastal environments. Natural hydraulic lime mills are well suited to replace cement-based mortars in the future without any negative impact.