This dissertation seeks to expose through a systemic approach the complexity and centrality of governance in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). This is premised on the hypothesis that an appreciation of this complexity and of drawing analytic distinctions between governance and management is necessary for successful interventions. The study adopts community-based environmental governance (CBEG) as the core heuristic variable in a conceptual framework for analysing CBNRM. The application of this framework generates empirical evidence concerning CBNRM processes adopted in the Kafue Flats socio-biophysical system. It is illustrated that CBNRM processes are established and implemented in a complex context. It is observed that social actors on the Kafue Flats usually do not constructively understand and appreciate this complexity. Several examples are demonstrated in which the thinking and actions of these actors reflect a limited conceptual framework of systems thinking and the inherent complexity in CBNRM. It is illustrated that these actors do not appreciate that CBNRM is a significant component of the governance of natural resource utilisation. This lack of appreciation is essentially identified as a contributing factor to poor performance. Ultimately, CBNRM processes are not only about sustainable use of natural resources; but also the nature and quality of relationships amongst social actors in CBEG. By drawing attention to these relationships, this study broadens our understanding of what goes into CBNRM processes. The implications of ignoring these relationships can be detrimental to the success of CBNRM. Accordingly, the establishment of productive CBNRM systems depends on how firmly CBEG issues and concerns are incorporated into CBNRM analyses and operations. Evidently, CBNRM cannot be pragmatically pursued in rigid socio-biophysical settings. It requires systemic and structural changes in the socio-political, economic and cultural mechanisms of CBEG. Thus, all cooperating partners, governments included, should accept that CBEG and CBNRM are inseparable. This understanding necessitates them to spearhead CBEG capacity building schemes at international, national and local levels. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

The spotlight on rural developed and sustainable livelihoods has increased over the years. Additionally, the importance of natural resources (specifically in poorer contexts and rural areas that have limited infrastructure and services) is well documented. This research focuses on examining the natural resource asset base of rural households in KwaDube, a rural community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It argues that natural resources are central to rural households. The research further asserts that, for rural households to have sustainable livelihoods, their natural resources should be available, diverse and accessible. A diverse natural resource asset base provides rural households with a variety of strategies and means for strong livelihood outcomes and coping mechanisms during times of shocks and stress. The research establishes that KwaDube has 28 natural resources used by households of which land is the primary resource. However, households of KwaDube have limited control and access to land and other natural resources in their community. Research further establishes that due to the influence of patriachal traditions which favor men over women in the allocation of resources and opportunities, there is limited equitable access to natural resources. Added to the impact of partriarchy, this study observes that the other main challenge to natural resource accessibility and use is the continuity of Apatheid policies and traditional administrative arrangements which provided access and entitlements to specific groups of people at the expense of others (age, race and gender). The research notes the numerous challenges faced by rural households that highlight their inability to have adequate resources. There is generally very little if any ownership in the form of private property. The available natural resources such as land, forests and water are public property and are degraded. There are inadequate laws protecting use of public property, hence households find themselves exposed to over-consumed natural resources associated with the tragedy of the commons. Diminishing resources mean households continue to struggle to build strong natural resource asset bases. Consequently, households adopt livelihood strategies that are survivalist in nature such as seeking jobs elsewhere, diversifying their income by engaging in off-farm employment and engaging in petty trade using some of the natural resources in KwaDube. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

Mountaintop removal mining and valley filling (MTR/VF) is a common form of land conversion in Central Appalachia and threatens the integrity of stream ecosystems. We investigated the effects of MTR/VF on stream salamander occupancy probabilities and community structure by conducting area constrained active searches for stream salamanders within intermittent streams located in mature forest (i.e., control) and those impacted by MTR/VF. During March to June of 2013, we detected five stream salamander species (Desmognathus fuscus, D. monticol, Eurycea cirrigera, Pseudotriton ruber, and Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) and found that the probability of occupancy was greatly reduced in MTR/VF streams compared to control streams. Additionally, the salamander community was greatly reduced in MTR/VF streams; the mean species richness estimate for MTR/VF streams was 2.09 (± 1.30 SD), whereas richness was 4.83 (± 0.58 SD) for control streams. Numerous mechanisms may be responsible for decreased occupancy and diminished salamander communities at MTR/VF streams, although water chemistry of streams may be a particularly important mechanism. Indeed, we detected elevated levels of specific conductivity, pH, total organic carbon, and dissolved ions in MTR/VF streams. Our results indicate that salamander communities, with other invertebrates, fish, and other aquatic and/or semi-aquatic animals, are susceptible to MTR/VF mining practices.

The goal of this paper is to offer new insights into the climate change debate by shifting away from the heated anthropologic arguments that dominate politics, media, and popular science. Instead, I choose to rely on the long-term impacts of a changing climate on our planet. The paper begins with a break down of key processes involved in short-term and long-term climate change, using the latest research. After a foundational understanding of climate sciences is established, we will discuss the failure of the climate change debate in educating the general public about the facts of a changing climate. Finally, the importance of long-term foresight in climate policy and education, and how this perspective could drastically progress the climate debate, will be discussed.

This paper examines the ongoing conflict between Squaw Valley Ski Holdings and the local Tahoe community and analyzes this conflict within the greater historical context of ski resort consolidation and development across the Western United States.

Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) is a technique that was first developed by Wackernagel as a Ph.D. thesis in 1994, then further developed in combination with Rees and published (Rees & Wackernagel, 1995). EFA is employed in this study to assess the resource utilisation of international tourists visiting New Zealand. Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world and the ecological sustainability of tourism is becoming more important term for managing tourism. This is becoming increasingly important with tourism identified as particularly as a significant contributor to carbon emissions. This study uses EFA to assess whether international tourists visiting New Zealand behave in a sustainable manner. Tourists are surveyed and classed into high, mid and low budget tourist types to gain a detailed account of their behaviour with particular reference to food, accommodation, transport, services, activities attractions, goods and waste. The EFA helps to identify areas of a tourist’s trip that have the greatest impact on the environment, thereby identifying ways to improve the sustainability of tourism in New Zealand. It was found that tourists generally consume more whilst on holiday than they do at home and more than New Zealand residents. The results show that international tourists’ behaviour is sustainable and New Zealand has the ecological carrying capacity to allow the number of international tourists to increase without incurring any significant ecological costs to the country. It was found that there is a positive relationship between ‘high’ income tourists and their ecological footprint and that independent travellers have a larger ecological footprint than the package travellers; however, package travellers have a larger food and housing ecological footprint than independent travellers. The energy footprint was the largest out of the six land types of a tourist’s ecological footprint. Food is the consumption category that is the largest contributor to a tourist’s ecological footprint.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2007. / Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 272-296). Also available online in Scholars' Bank; and in ProQuest, free to University of Oregon users.

La basse Kinabatangan est un espace protégé dans lequel cohabitent des villageois, des planteurs de palmiers à huile, des opérateurs touristiques et des ONG écologistes. L’écotourisme est censé participer à la préservation de l’environnement et au développement local. Le tourisme est la troisième activité non « traditionnelle » existante après l’exploitation du bois et la culture des palmiers à huile. Un « sanctuaire de la vie sauvage » a été créé pour assurer la préservation de la faune et de la flore. Après une déconstruction du terme « nature », j’analyse la façon dont les habitants l’utilisent pour leurs besoins vivriers. Je montre qu’ils vivent une transition sociale économique voire ontologique avec leur entrée dans la société de consommation. Grâce à l’étude de l’extension spatiale du terroir « utile » je mets en évidence les contraintes qui relèguent les habitants des villages étudiés dans un espace limité qui est progressivement devenu une zone « refuge » pour la biodiversité. Je mets en évidence la convergence des imaginaires touristiques et écologistes pour enfin montrer qu’il existe toutefois de fortes divergences en termes de pratiques. Enfin, j’analyse la diffusion spatiale du tourisme en fonction du type d’activités proposées. Je soutiens que ce secteur conjugué à l’écologie, est à l’origine d’un changement majeur de la place occupée par les animaux ainsi qu’un vecteur de changement social. Ce tableau permet d’affiner la lecture des conflits tout en examinant la façon dont ce territoire spécifique est à l’origine de la création d’institutions bricolées et plus ou moins adaptées aux problématiques liées au milieu et à la culture locale. / The lower Kinabatangan is a protected area in which villagers, oil palm owners, tour operators and environmentalist NGOs cohabit. Ecotourism is supposed to participate in conservation and local development. Tourism is the third activity after logging and oil palm plantations. A “wildlife sanctuary” has been created to ensure the preservation of fauna and flora. After a deconstruction of the word “nature” I analyse the way local people use its resources to sustain their everyday lives. I show that, while they are entering the consumer society, they encounter a social, economic and ontological transition. Thanks to the study of the expansion of the land used for commercial agriculture, I aim to prove that constraints push the local communities in a limited area which has progressively become a shelter for biodiversity. I emphasize the convergence of the imaginaries of tourism and environmentalism as well as their discrepancies in terms of practices. Then, I analyse the spatial diffusion of tourism according to the types of activities organised. I argue that tourism and conservation initiate a major shift to the place belonging to the animals as well as a social change. This enables to scrutinize the analyses of the conflicts giving thus the ability study the creation of institutions ad hoc, unequally adapted to the local context.

I carried out an observational study of historic high resolution aerial imagery spanning six decades (1950-2014) to identify recent and historic spatial extent of mangrove forests, within the municipal boundaries of the City of Tampa, Florida USA. My objectives were to map mangrove distribution and spatial extent and any change or patterns of change discernable. I observed variable patterns of change and rates of expansion varied between sites spatially as well as within sites between time intervals. I found notable changes in mangrove extent in the Tampa from historic and modern aerial imagery for the ~64-year period between 1950 and 2014. There were significant losses in areal extent between 1950 and 1973, much of which could be directly attributed to anthropogenic modification of the Tampa coastal landscape. All the regions observed had recovered or surpassed their original extent by the end of the period reviewed (1950-2014). It appears much of the recovery observed is a result of recolonization of created or modified shorelines. Results of these observations may contribute to the body of information used to inform conservation and management objectives in the City of Tampa and Tampa Bay.

Not only in South Africa, but also all over the world, pollution is threatening the quality of water resources. More than 100,000 chemicals are produced worldwide and some of these chemicals enter into the aquatic environment, posing a potential threat to humans, animals as well as other organisms. Therefore, determining the quality of water is of great importance. The testing of the toxicity of water samples are either based on a biological model or chemical model. In the biological model, organisms are utilized as indicators for toxicity of a particular sample, this sample may then be cytotoxic to the cells of the organism. In the chemical model the amount of a specific chemical present in water samples are predicted. Although, within the biological model there are many cytotoxicity screening assays (also called bioassays) that assess quality of water, there is a need for a fast, efficient and cost-effective cell culture system that may act as first screening procedure in a range of tests. Of particular importance in the context of this thesis, are bioassays that measure specific biochemical parameters, e.g. the Uridine uptake bioassay, MTT (3-(4,5¬dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and the bioluminescent assay. An important advantage of these assays are their sensitivity and the fact that the tests are principally based on cell mortality as a consequence of membrane damage or influence on cell metabolism. Researchers at the Highveld Biological Laboratory in South Africa have the past few years paid particular attention to the MTT assay, originally developed by Mosmann, and have modified this assay. In this thesis the adjusted method is referred to as the Modified Highveld Biological assay. There were, however, still a few adjustments to be made in order to use this modified method to its full potential. The Bioluminescent assay, also were thought to have potential to be modified as water quality screening test. Therefore, the hypotheses investigated in the current thesis were: • The original Mosmann MTT method can be modified successfully to provide a sensitive, reproducible mass screening method for determining chemical cytotoxicity and water quality, by using the K-562 cell line. • Sensitivity of the assay can be increased by utilizing a 3 phase medium cycle (Medium type 1-3) instead of the previously used single culture medium. • Furthermore, this cytotoxicity assay can be successfully utilized to determine whether any chemical solution or water sample is cytotoxic. Thus information was needed to determine whether cytotoxicity correlates with real life toxicity. This requires time-consuming epidemiological surveys unless results can be correlated with previous surveys. The research in this thesis attempted to indicate that the obtained cytotoxicity can be used to predict toxicity of a water sample, and that the cytotoxicity findings of this dissertation may indeed be meaningful. The culturing conditions of the Modified Highveld Biological MTT assay were modified successfully and could thus be utilized as the first assay in a battery of tests to determine overall cytotoxicity by utilising K¬652 cells in culture. Due to successful modification of the assay, this MTT assay now reduces assay duration, thereby saving important resources. An attempt was also made to optimise the Bioluminescent assay. This method is based on the fact that adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is present in all living cells. The method utilizes an enzyme, firefly luciferase, which catalyses the formation of light from ATP and luciferin. The emitted light intensity is linearly dependent on the ATP . concentration and is measured using a luminometer. The following problems were, however, identified that renders this method unsatisfactory as cytotoxicity indicator for water samples. • The luciferase enzyme is too sensitive to too many different substances used in the cell culture medium and in the preparation procedures of the cells (ions, salts etc.) which makes it less suited for usage for fast, effective testing of water toxicity. • This method will probably function better when luciferase can be carried into the cells or form part of the cells' genetic material. • We therefore suggest that, the Bioluminescent assay might possibly be a method to determine cytotoxicity, if the sensitivity of the luciferase enzyme could be further investigated. Thus it could be concluded that luminescence is not suitable for assaying complex mixtures because it is possible for unknown non~toxic agents, present in test samples, to interfere with the process of light emission (quenching). Lastly, known chemical solutions as well as unknown water samples were screened using the adjustments to the Modified Highveld Biological Method proposed in this thesis. The cytotoxicity of unknown water samples and chemical solutions were successfully determined and different cytotoxic effects were obtained, e.g. synergism, antagonism, additive effects and neutral effects. It was also possible to reduce or remove the cytotoxicity of certain water samples by applying pre~treatment with either Na2CO3 (removing possible toxic divalent and polyvalent metals) or SepPak cartridge clean up (removing organic toxicants). Results indicated that the method is very sensitive and can detect even low traces of toxicants. Thus, it can be concluded that the method was successfully adjusted to be useful as a first screening assay for toxicity analysis of a series of environmental water samples. / Dissertation (MSc (Anatomy))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Anatomy / unrestricted