The Barsele area is located in the "Gold Line", southwest of the volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) Skellefte district which hosts more than 85 known VMS-deposits where some are gold-bearing. The Barsele area consists of the Central, Avan and Skiråsen intrusion hosted gold deposits, the Norra gold-bearing VMS-deposit and the Risberget zone. This study includes a geochronological study of two coherent volcanic rocks from the Norra zone using Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry and Scanning Electron Microscope images of zircons and also includes petrographic microscopy of thin sections and lithogeochemical data used in classification diagrams.  This study presents two new LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages for VMS-hosting volcanic rocks from the Barsele area: o   1956.8 ± 6.47 Ma (n: 17, MSWD: 0.99), sample A from a hydrothermally altered volcanic rock  o   1952.2 ± 14.5 Ma (n: 6, MSWD: 1.1), sample B from a rhyolite-dacite  The new U-Pb age constraints presented in this study indicate that the volcanic rocks of the Norra zone are older than the volcanic rocks in the Skellefte Group. The results presented in this report together with the earlier dated c. 1.96 Ga metadacite suggests that the volcanic rocks of the Barsele area are located at a lower chronostratigraphic level than the Skellefte Group, i.e., at the chronostratigraphically lower Bothnian Supergroup. Additionally, the results presented here conclude that two VMS-events can be delineated by geochronological data which further opens up for the question if the Barsele area belong to an older arc system (e.g., the Knaften arc) or were part of an arc system evolving continuously between 1.95-1.88 Ga (e.g., the Knaften-Skellefte arc). / Barsele, Västerbottens län, norra Sverige, ligger i ett område som kallas för Guld linjen och är beläget sydväst om Skelleftefältet där mer än 85 kända förekomster av massiva sulfidmalmer (VMS), vissa guldförande, förekommer. Barseleområdet är uppdelat i Central, Avan och Skiråsen zonen, Norra zonen och Risberget zonen där Norra zonen är en guldförande VMS-fyndighet. Denna studie inkluderar en geokronologisk studie av zirkoner från två vulkaniter från Norra zonen som har analyserats med Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry och avbildats med svepelektronmikroskop samt petrografisk studie av två tunnslip och klassificeringsdiagram baserade på litogeokemisk data. Denna studie presenterar två nya LA-ICP-MS zirkon U-Pb åldrar för VMS-förande vulkaniter i  Barseleområdet:  o   1956.8 ± 6.47 Ma (n: 17, MSWD: 0.99), prov A från en hydrotermalt omvandlad vulkanisk bergart o   1952.2 ± 14.5 Ma (n: 6, MSWD: 1.1), prov B från en ryolit-dacit De två nya  U-Pb zirkon åldersbestämningarna som presenteras i denna studie indikerar att de vulkaniska bergarterna i Norra zonen är äldre än de vulkaniska bergarterna som tillhör Skelleftegruppen. Vidare antyder de presenterade åldrarna i denna studie tillsammans med den tidigare genomförda dateringen av en metadacit (cirka 1.96 Ga) på att de vulkaniska bergarterna i Barseleområdet kan tillhöra suprakrustala bergarter tillhörande Bottniska bassängen. Barseleområdet föreslås därför förekomma vid en lägre kronostratigrafisk nivå jämfört med Skelleftegruppen, det vill säga vid samma kronostratigrafisk nivå som Bottniska Supergruppen. Utifrån de resultat som presenteras här kan slutsatsen att två VMS-områden kan avgränsas av geokronologiska data som ytterligare öppnar för frågan om Barsele-området tillhör ett äldre bågsystem (t.ex. Knaften-bågen) eller var en del av ett bågsystem som utvecklades mellan 1.95-1.88 Ga (t.ex. Knaften-Skelleftebågen).

One of the main challenges in fluid mechanics and heat transfer is the need for detailed studies andfast computational speed to monitor and optimise a system. These fluid/heat flows comprise time-dependent velocity, multi-scale, pressure, and energy fluctuations. Although there has been major advancements in computational power and technology, modelling detailed physical problems is currently falling short. The fluid mechanics and heat transfer domains are rapidly advancing, driven by unprecedented volumes of data from experiments, field measurements, and large-scale simulations at multiple spatio temporal scales. Such an increase in the volume of data unlocks the possibility of using techniques like machine learning. These machine learning algorithms offer a wealth of techniques to extract information from data that can be translated into knowledge about the underlying physics. Moreover, machine learning algorithms can augment domain knowledge and automate tasks related to flow control and optimisation. A significant milestone in the area of machine learning is the rise of deep learning, which is a powerful tool which can handle large data sets describing complex nonlinear dynamics that are commonly encountered in heat transfer and fluidflows. Therefore, this thesis aims to investigate data obtained from numerical simulations with deep learning techniques to reproduce the underlying physics present in data and considerably speed up the process. In this study, subcooled boiling transfer data has been used to train the deep neural network model then the trained model is validated using a validation dataset. The performance of the model is further evaluated using a set of interpolation and extrapolation datasets for different operating conditions outside the training and validation data. Furthermore, to highlight the robustness and reliability of the deep learning model, uncertainty quantification techniques such as Monte Carlo dropout and Deep Ensemble are implemented. This study demonstrates how a data-driven model can be used for subcooled boiling heat transfer and highlights why uncertainty quantification is important for such a model. The analysis and discussion in this thesis serve as the basis for further extending the potential use of data-driven methods for system optimisation, control and monitoring, diagnostic, and industrial applications.

Målet är att identifiera och ge fullständiga åtgärdsförslag på energieffektiviseringar för att minskaenergianvändningen med 25 % och därmed uppnå kraven för Green Building. De fullständigaåtgärdsförslagen ska redovisa ekonomi-, miljö- och hälsoaspekter.För att uppnå syftet med examensarbetet har ett konsekvent tillvägagångssätt använts för attidentifiera potentiella energieffektiviseringar för Smaland Airport. Med hjälp av den bakomliggandestudien ”Energieffektiviseringar Smaland Airport 2010-2011” analyserades kartläggningen avflygplatsens system och processer.Den totala energibesparingen för Smaland Airport uppgår till 646,1 MWh eller 22,04 % vilket fallerinom ramen för Sveriges klimatmål med en sänkt energianvändning på 20 % fram till och med 2020från 2008 års nivå. För att uppnå denna besparing krävs investeringar på 2,78 Mkr. Den årligareduceringen av koldioxid som fås av föreslagna energieffektiviseringar uppgår till 49,53 ton. Dengenomsnittliga pay-off tiden för investeringarna är 7,6 år vilket visar på attenergieffektiviseringsarbetet på Smaland Airport anses vara ekonomiskt försvarbart sett från ettlångsiktigt perspektiv.Energibesparingen som Green Building baseras på uppgår till 556MWh eller 23,15 % vilket inte ärtillräckligt för att klara huvudmålet på 25 % som krävs för att få fastigheten Green Buildingcertifierad. För att lyckas med huvudmålet krävs det att fler energieffektiviseringar identifieras och genomförs. / The goal is to identify and provide complete proposals for actions on energy efficiency to reduceenergy usage by 25 % and thus achieve the requirements for Green Building. The proposals shallaccount for economic, environmental as well as health aspects.To meet the objective of the thesis a consistent approach was used to identify potential energyefficiency of Smaland Airport. With help of the underlying study "Energy Efficiencies of SmalandAirport, 2010-2011" the airport's systems and processes were surveyed and analyzed.The total energy savings of Smaland Airport amounting to 646.1 MWh or 22.04% which falls withinthe framework of Sweden's climate goals with a lower consumption of 20% until 2020 from 2008levels. The requested investment to achieve these savings amounts to 2.78 million crowns. Theannual reduction of carbon dioxide obtained by the proposed energy efficienciesamounts to 49.53 tonnes. The average pay-off period for proposed investments is 7.6 years whichindicates that the energy efficiency work at Smaland Airport is considered to be economicallyjustified, as seen from a long term perspective.Energy savings from green building based on the amount to 556MWh or 23.15% is not enough tomeet the primary objective of 25% which is required to obtain property Green Building certified. Toachieve the main goal requires more energy efficiency measures identified and implemented.

This thesis analyzes the characteristics of flow pattern and vehicle-emitted pollutant dispersion in roughness surface layer. In an urban environment, wind flow and transported-pollutant source interfere strongly with buildings and other roughness elements on the surface ground, which results in complex characteristics of flow pattern and pollutant dispersion in 3D circumstances. The present study intends to simplify the research domain and investigate the fundamental modeling problems that exist in the field. The current physical research topic is restricted to 2D street canyon in equilibrium conditions. The study is motivated by the fact that characteristics of flow pattern and pollutant distribution inside street canyons are important for public health. The research has applied the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methodology. To date, insights have typically focused on idealized street canyons without strictly limited boundary conditions and turbulence models. Those approaches face challenges related to their applicability to real urban scenarios or the reliability of prediction results. The thesis examines the influence of grid density, turbulence models and turbulent Schmidt number on pollutant distribution at windward and leeward surfaces of street canyon. Since numerical results usually are validated with wind-tunnel measurement data, the results between full-size model and wind-tunnel model are compared in order to test the Reynolds number effect. The lack of measurement data means that the morphometric method is used to generate upcoming wind profile, including the mean vertical velocity and turbulence parameters. The thesis also analyzes the potential errors brought by the method (Scenario A). Based on the evaluated numerical model, the thesis continues to study the impacts of surrounding buildings and geometry of street canyon on flow and pollutant distribution inside street canyons. The effect of wind on pollutant distribution inside street canyons was also investigated (Scenario A). Furthermore, the influence of roof shape and configuration of street canyon on characteristics of flow and pollutant distribution is also systematically studied, with the results shown in scenario B. The main conclusions of the thesis are that the uncertainty of numerical results derives from different aspects. Wind profile in the inlet profile generated by morphometric method brings major error to the simulation results. Current turbulence models cannot compromise the simulation results between flow field and pollutant distribution field. Ignored small-scale obstacles also need to be handled carefully. Numerical results revealed that flow and pollutant distribution inside street canyons are mainly dominated by the geometry of the street canyon itself. Medium-spaced surrounding buildings are also better able to transport pollutant out of the street canyon. Through systematic analysis, roof shape is proven to have a significant effect on flow and pollutant distribution inside a street canyon. The major impact is altered turbulence intensity depth and strength of shear layer inside the street canyon, which is important for pollutant removal process out of the street canyon. In the future, advanced turbulence models accompanied by small-obstacle effect models need to be developed in order to reliably simulate flow and pollutant dispersion simultaneously. Based on the advanced turbulence model, simulation of flow and pollutant dispersion in a complex 3D environment is essential in the next steps for the purpose of engineering application. Accurate vertical wind profile provided for inlet profile is another interesting direction for further development. Keywords: Flow; Pollutant dispersion; CFD; Street canyon; Reliability / <p>QC 20130215</p>

Clean water and renewable energy are essential requirements to build resilience towards the adverse effects of climate change and global warming. Advanced wastewater treatment options may provide a unique opportunity to recover various useful resources such as energy (biogas), fertilizers, minerals, and metals embedded in the wastewater stream. However, considerable challenges remain when it comes to designing and planning sustainable wastewater treatment systems. This thesis focuses on the avenues of energy recovery from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), by evaluating the potential for biogas recovery from wastewater and sewage sludge treatment in WWTPs. Various available technologies for biogas recovery are examined and evaluated to understand their viability in different applications and relative performance. Further, the methodologies and tools employed to assess such energy recovery systems are evaluated, covering the technical, economic, and environmental performance aspects. A sustainability assessment framework is then developed, using appropriate sustainability indicators to assess performance. The framework is applied to a case study of a WWTP in the emerging city of Tbilisi, Georgia. A spreadsheet tool is also developed to aid the sustainability (technoeconomic and environmental) assessments for the case study. The case study results reveal a significant biogas recovery potential, with annual energy generation potential of 130 GWh from combined heat and power (CHP) recovery, and a potential to avoid 28,200 tCO2eq emissions every year, when biogas is recovered only from the wastewater. The recovery potential increases when biogas is recovered from both wastewater and sewage sludge. Further, the contribution of overall resource (energy and nutrient) recovery in WWTPs to the Sustainable Development Goals is examined. By studying the linkage of various benefits to the different SDGs, the multilateral and cross-cutting nature of benefits from resource recovery is clearly illustrated. The thesis concludes with the discussion of possible future technologies and perspectives that can enhance the sustainability of WWTPs and help transform them into Wastewater Resource Recovery Facilities (WRRFs). / Rent vatten och förnybar energi är väsentliga krav för att bygga motståndskraft mot de negativa effekterna av klimatförändringar och global uppvärmning. Avancerade avloppsreningsalternativ kan ge en unik möjlighet att återvinna olika användbara resurser som energi (biogas), gödselmedel, mineraler och metaller inbäddade i avloppsvatten strömmen. Det finns emellertid stora utmaningar när det gäller att utforma och planera hållbara reningssystem. Denna avhandling fokuserar på möjligheterna till energiåtervinning från avloppsreningsverk (WWTP), genom att utvärdera potentialen för biogasåtervinning från avloppsvatten- och avloppssrening i WWTP. Olika tillgängliga tekniker för återvinning av biogas undersöks och utvärderas för att förstå deras livskraft i olika applikationer och relativa prestanda. Vidare utvärderas de metoder och verktyg som används för att utvärdera sådana system för energiåtervinning som täcker de tekniska, ekonomiska och miljömässiga aspekterna. En ram för hållbarhetsbedömning utvecklas sedan med hjälp av lämpliga hållbarhetsindikatorer för att bedöma prestanda. Ramverket tillämpas på en fallstudie av en WWTP i den framväxande staden Tbilisi, Georgien. Ett kalkylarkverktyg utvecklas också för att underlätta bedömningarna av hållbarhet (teknisk ekonomi och miljö) för fallstudien. Resultaten från fallstudien avslöjar en betydande återvinningspotential för biogas, med en årlig energiproduktions potential på 130 GWh från kombinerad värme och kraft (CHP), och en potential att undvika 28.200 ton CO2-utsläpp varje år, när biogas endast återvinns från avloppsvattnet. Återvinningspotentialen ökar när biogas utvinns från både avloppsvatten och avloppsslam. Vidare undersöks bidraget från den totala återhämtningen av energi (energi och näringsämnen) i WWTP till målen för hållbar utveckling. Genom att studera kopplingen mellan olika fördelar till de olika SDG: erna illustreras den multilaterala och tvärgående karaktären av fördelarna med resursåtervinning. Avhandlingen avslutas med diskussionen om möjliga framtida tekniker och perspektiv som kan förbättra WWTP: s hållbarhet och hjälpa till att omvandla dem till anläggning för återvinning av resurser från avloppsvatten.

Sulfide-bearing rock that is excavated in conjunction with construction projects can cause environmental and construction engineering problems. Sulfidic minerals oxidize when they are exposed to an oxidant and water, which can make them generate acid rock drainage (ARD) with high concentrations of metals and sulphate. Predicting the overall oxidation process and drainage properties is, however, difficult since these depend on various factors. In this master thesis the current state of a 20-year-old ARD case is studied and compared to early site conditions to improve the knowledge of how different sulfide-bearing rocks may behave over time. The study investigates the drainage water and its impact on a local watercourse, but also chemical and mineralogical properties of oxidized rock from the site. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, S, and Zn in the drainage and watercourse has been studied and compared to data from when the sulfide-bearing rock was excavated and deposited.  The chemical composition and occurrence of sulfides in different rock types from the area has been examined through chemical analysis, SEM-EDS techniques, and sequential extractions. XRD data has been collected but was not interpreted within this project. The results from the water chemistry investigations showed that the concentrations of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn had decreased since 2004, while the concentrations of Al, Fe, and Mn had increased. These elements mainly originated from a drainage pipe below ground level and later precipitated in the watercourse; only nickel and sulphate concentrations remained elevated 800 meters downstream from the studied rock storage. It was also shown that other sources in the area contaminated the watercourse. Masses of the previously deposited sulfide-bearing rock were moved approximately 10 years ago, which increase the uncertainty of conclusions drawn from the drainage. However, the elevated electrical conductivity and metal content of the drainage are signs of sulfide oxidation. The high concentration of aluminium likely indicates that the pH is buffered by silicates in the rock storage, and the concentrations of iron and manganese could also originate from silicates, or from sulfide oxidation. Pyrite was found abundantly in clusters in metasedimentary rock. Mainly pyrite, but also sphalerite and pyrrhotite was found in less oxidized, mica rich metafelsic rock. Both pyrite and sphalerite appeared in conjunction with mica, whereof pyrite as crack fillings. In more oxidized samples of mica rich rock, close to no sulfides were observed. The substantial difference in this rock is likely because the sulfides in conjunction with mica are particularly exposed to oxidation since fractures tend to appear along mica, and the sulfides located there have large specific surface areas. The presence of sulfides in the mica poor rock grouping of this study proved to be very heterogenous. In future studies there is therefore a need to further divide this group and study the sulfide-bearing metasedimentary rock from this site separately. In addition, the mineralogical source of the manganese in the water should be investigated in further studies.

Målet med den här studien är att förhindra effektivitetssänkningar i moderna biologiska reningsanläggningar för skogsindustriella avloppsvatten. Biologiska processer är vanligtvis effektiva när det gäller att reducera lättnedbrytbart organiskt material. Eftersom den utgörs av levande mikroorganismer (MO) är tekniken känslig. Toxiska ämnen kan döda en kultur av MO. Innan de har ökat i antal igen kommer reduktionseffektiviteten att vara påverkad för en ansenlig tid framöver. I ett pappers- och massabruk finns många typer av vätskor som oavsiktligt kan hamna i reningsanläggningen. I den här studien har svartluts inverkan på reduktionsgraden studerats. Biologiska reningsverk har använts under en lång tid. De har utvecklats från att vara generella reningsverk till att bli konceptanläggningar i flera steg, där varje steg har designats för sitt eget syfte med specifika MO. I det här arbetet har ett MultiBio-koncept vid Gruvön Bruk studerats. En anläggning i laboratorieskala har byggts för svartlutsförsöken. Resultatet har jämförts mot simulerade värden och värden från bruket. När ett spill av svartlut passerar genom en MultiBio späds det ut mellan varje steg. Halten av svartlut är hög i de första stegen vilka påverkas kraftigt. I de första stegen lever snabbväxande organismer som återhämtar sig på ett par dagar. De mer känsliga aktivslamstegen finns längre bak i reningsverket och är skyddade från toxiska koncentrationer av svartlut. Endast vid försök med 24-timmarstillsatser blev koncentrationen av svartlut så hög att den påverkade MO negativt. Den biologiska processen i ett reningsverk kan störas om MO förnekas något essentiellt behov. En biologisk process har ett flertal behov, bland annat behöver aeroba MO löst syre. Eftersom syresättning av vattnet är energikrävande och kostsamt är det inte problemfritt att skapa en omgivning som ger hög effektivitet samtidigt som man strävar efter att sänka energiförbrukningen. I avhandlingen beskrivs ett tillvägagångssätt för att studera energieffektiv syresättning. / The aim of this study is to prevent efficiency reduction in modern wastewater treatment plants for forest industry effluents. Biological processes are usually efficient in reducing biodegradable organic material. Since the technique depends on living microorganisms (MO) it is sensitive. Toxic substances can kill the population. It takes considerable time for the MOs to grow in number and the treatment efficiency will be affected accordingly. In a pulp and paper mill, a number of liquors are handled that can reach the treatment plant by accident. In this study the impact of black liquor spills on treatment efficiency has been studied. Biological treatment methods have been used for a long time. They have developed from general treatment plants to multiple stage concepts, where each stage is designed for its own purpose with specific MO cultures. In this thesis, a plant with the MultiBio concept, located at Gruvön Mill in Sweden has been studied. A laboratory scale MultiBio plant has been constructed for the trials in which efficiency during black liquor exposure has been measured. The measured laboratory results were evaluated by comparing them with simulated values and a mill case. When a shock of toxic black liquor passing through a MultiBio concept, the black liquor is diluted between the compartments. The first compartments that are exposed to high concentrations of black liquor are affected negatively. The MOs in the first compartment are fast growing and recover in a few days. The more sensitive activated sludge compartments are located further on in the plant. A toxic concentration is found in the activated sludge compartments only when the duration of the spill is 24 hours or more. Denying the MOs their needs can disturb biological treatments. Among many things, a biological process needs dissolved oxygen. Since aeration is energy consuming and expensive, there is a conflict between gaining high efficiency and, at the same time, decreasing the energy consumption. In this study, an approach to saving energy for aeration is initiated.

Mercury (Hg) cannot be degraded. Therefore only two principal processes are available for the treatment of Hg-contaminated soil: (1) the separation of Hg from the soil or (2) the stabilisation of Hg within the soil. Prior to selecting a suitable treatment technique, it is necessary to have an understanding of Hg behaviour in contaminated soil, i.e., distribution in particle size fractions, dissolution at different pH and in the presence of chlorides, and mobilisation using various extractants. The thesis aims to evaluate the potential for applying soil washing to decontaminate the Hg-contaminated soil. The Hg contamination originated from inappropriate waste disposal, chlor-alkali process and harbour activities, and the soil was also polluted by other trace elements, i.e., Zn, Cu and Pb, etc. The soil was fractionated from fine to coarse particles to study the effectiveness of physical separation. A pH-static titration ranging from pH 3 to 11 was performed to assess the mobility of Hg in response to pH changes. The chloride influence on Hg mobilisation was studied using an HCl solution of different concentrations as the leachant. Batch leaching tests were used to evaluate Hg solubility in water, and extraction efficiency by various extractants. The extractants derived from wastes were acidogenic leachates generated from biodegradable wastes, and alkaline leachates produced from fly/bottom ashes. The studied soil consisted of dominant coarse-grained fractions, which is usually suitable for particle size separation. However, dry sieving has been shown to be insufficient to separate clean from contaminated soil fractions although the Hg concentrations decreased with increasing particle sizes. The reasons are likely to be: (i) the physical attachment of fines to coarse particles; (ii) the strong chemical bond of soil organic matter (OM) and minerals for Hg. Distilled water could barely mobilise the Hg from the soil, most likely due to firm chemical bonding between the soil and Hg. Despite the fact that enhanced Hg dissolution was observed at pH 5 and 11 in this study, soil washing by pH adjustment was insufficient for Hg removal. The introduction of chlorides did not facilitate the Hg mobilisation either. Retention of Hg in the soil by OM seemed to be predominant over Hg mobilisation by chlorides. Chemical extraction by leachates from wastes as well as EDTA solution and NaOH solutions showed that neither alkaline nor acidic leachates could facilitate Hg removal from the soil. Mercury was firmly bound in the soil matrix and no more than 1.5% of the total Hg could be removed by any of the tested extractants. Future research should therefore focus on the development of Hg immobilisation techniques.

Sites contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can be simultaneously contaminated with trace elements. Co-contaminated soil is considered a complex problem since inorganic and organic contaminants behave differently and thereby often require different remediation strategies. Despite the fact that co-contaminated soils are a common problem, existing research on remediation of contaminated soil mostly focuses on either organic or inorganic contaminants. In the present study, the possibilities of electrokinetic remediation as an alternative to commonly used remediation technologies was investigated. An experiment was setup to evaluate the effects of electrokinetic remediation on both polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and trace elements, such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and zinc, simultaneously. The experiment was performed in 12 litre large plexiglass cells. Two cells with electrokinetic treatment, equipped with iron electrodes, to amend the soil with iron via intentional corrosion of the electrodes, and one control. The cells were filled with contaminated soil and deionized water was pumped through the cells to simulate a groundwater flow. The experiment ran for two months, during which pore water was sampled weekly and simulated groundwater monthly, to monitor changes in contaminant concentrations. Soil samples were taken at the start and at the end of the experiment. Results showed that the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the simulated groundwater decreased from 0.39 ± 0.15 μg L-1 to 0.12 ± 0.064 μg L-1 during the experiment. However, at the point of writing, samples of soil at the end of the experiment has not yet been analysed for concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, something that needs to be done to validate previously described results. In terms of the trace elements, the applied method did not increase their mobility, nor did it decrease it. Moreover, the trace elements behaved similarly in the control cell as in the treatment cells. This was observed for all the tested trace elements, indicating that electrokinetic remediation in this particulate case may be a suitable remediation technology for organic, but not that successful for inorganic contaminants. In regard to this, further research is required to establish whether electrokinetic remediation is a promising remediation technology for co- contaminated soil and how it can be optimized to ensure remediation success for both organic and inorganic contaminants.

In the recent century, a process of urbanization has increased globally. Previously rural or natural land have been converted into impervious surfaces to make way for housing, industries, and roads. This anthropogenic process has resulted in an increased amount of surface runoff from precipitation, so-called stormwater. Stormwater can accumulate a range of pollutants when it flows over the impervious surfaces of our cities. These pollutants can have a negative impact on the lakes and streams that receive the stormwater from the urban environments. To reduce the environmental problems associated with the content of stormwater, various techniques have been developed for stormwater treatment, with the aim of reducing the pollutant load in the runoff before it enters the receiving waterbody. One such technology is stormwater biofiltration, also known as bioretention. Stormwater biofilters were developed in the USA in the early 90's and they utilize the natural water remediation properties of plant-soil systems. They are generally characterized by a vegetated submerged filter bed with an underlying drainage layer. They have shown to be an effective method for stormwater pollutant removal. The treatment processes take place both in the vegetation and in filter material. As th ematerial choices and design of the biofilters can vary, so can its treatment performance. Stormwater biofilters have grown in popularity in the last decades since their development and numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate the systems’ treatment efficiency. However, knowledge gaps still exist regarding their implementation in colder climates and the suitability of different configurations and materials. This study examines the removal performance of total and dissolved heavy metals (Cd (cadmium),Cu (copper), Pb (lead) and Zn (zinc)), phosphorus, nitrogen and total suspended solids (TSS) in three stormwater biofilters in a Swedish climate, located in central Malmö. The current biofilters are designed with different configurations of their filter media and are built with 1) sand-basedfilter material 2) sand-based filter material with a submerged zone and 3) filter media consisting of 50% sand-based material in combination with 50% pumice. The results showed that the treatment capacity of the biofilters with a filter media of only sand (biofilter S) and with sand as well as a submerged zone (biofilter S_SZ) was similar for all pollutants. The reduction of total levels of metals (&gt; 85 %) and TSS (&gt;90 %) was consistently high and similar to levels achieved in previous studies for both temperate and colder climates. The removal of dissolved metals was lower in comparison to the removal of the total metal fractions, but the dissolved fractions were still generally reduced in the effluent. A positive removal of total phosphorus and total nitrogen was overall displayed in the effluent from the two biofilters; however,leaching was shown for the dissolved fractions. For nitrogen (N) species, the concentrations in the runoff were generally below the detection limit for the analysis making it difficult to establish probable removal percentages. For the biofilter S_P, which contained a mix of sand and pumice, the removal capacity was lowerfor all parameters compared to the other designs. Overall, the pollutant removal performances are regarded to be satisfactory for biofilters S andS_SZ and their implementation suitable for the given site. However, further investigations should be performed during warmer seasons, especially regarding the removal of nutrients.