Fairness, forgiveness and grudge-holding are concepts which underlie many aspects of our interpersonal relationships. Fairness is the foundation of our day-to-day communication with others and forgiveness is concerned with a positive strategy used to manage negative emotional experiences of underserved [i.e. undeserved] unfair treatment. Grudge-holding results as an accumulation of negative feelings, which are associated with the original experience of unfairness. Two experimental studies investigated children’s perceptions of, feelings about, and reactions towards the unfair behaviour of a mother and a friend, by individually inviting the children to scenario-based interview sessions, which included three imaginary tasks. The children were asked to judge the fairness of a mother and a best friend’s treatment towards a child protagonist and to report their associated feelings, after listening to a scenario that described an interaction between a child and a mother and an interaction between a child and a friend. They further responded to three scenario-based experimental tasks, regarding their willingness to grant forgiveness, as opposed to expressions of hostility. In the first study, the children’s willingness to forgive, as a result of unfairness, was explored with 82 local primary school children in Palmerston North, New Zealand, whose ages ranged from 8- to 11-years-old, in addition to 50 parents of these participating children. The parents also completed a questionnaire about their approaches to their children’s common misbehaviours. The study found that the children were typically willing to grant forgiveness to a mother, even though she had been unfair. Their forgiveness tendencies were not related to aspects of parental disciplinary behaviour. However, an examination of the children’s verbatim responses through the use of thematic analysis revealed the complex nature of the relationship between parent and child concerning tolerance for mistakes. In the second study, I explored on whether the children’s repeated exposure to unfairness would contribute to their display of grudge-holding against a mother or a best friend in the scenarios and this investigation involved 55 local primary children, whose ages ranged from 8- to 12-years-old, in Wellington, New Zealand. The children participated in individual scenario-based interview sessions, which included three imaginary tasks over the two time periods, one week apart from each other. The children’s levels of grudge-holding was measured by analysing the possible increase in hostility, which the children expressed from Time 1 to Time 2. The study showed that a repeated experience of unfairness had a noticeable effect on the children’s level of hostility towards the person who was unfair and especially towards the best friend. The children’s verbatim comments also suggested some evidence of accumulated negativity in their responses to an unfairness experience. Thus, this study proved to be a suitable paradigm for operationalising grudge-holding in children.

Fairness, forgiveness and grudge-holding are concepts which underlie many aspects of our interpersonal relationships. Fairness is the foundation of our day-to-day communication with others and forgiveness is concerned with a positive strategy used to manage negative emotional experiences of underserved [i.e. undeserved] unfair treatment. Grudge-holding results as an accumulation of negative feelings, which are associated with the original experience of unfairness. Two experimental studies investigated children’s perceptions of, feelings about, and reactions towards the unfair behaviour of a mother and a friend, by individually inviting the children to scenario-based interview sessions, which included three imaginary tasks. The children were asked to judge the fairness of a mother and a best friend’s treatment towards a child protagonist and to report their associated feelings, after listening to a scenario that described an interaction between a child and a mother and an interaction between a child and a friend. They further responded to three scenario-based experimental tasks, regarding their willingness to grant forgiveness, as opposed to expressions of hostility. In the first study, the children’s willingness to forgive, as a result of unfairness, was explored with 82 local primary school children in Palmerston North, New Zealand, whose ages ranged from 8- to 11-years-old, in addition to 50 parents of these participating children. The parents also completed a questionnaire about their approaches to their children’s common misbehaviours. The study found that the children were typically willing to grant forgiveness to a mother, even though she had been unfair. Their forgiveness tendencies were not related to aspects of parental disciplinary behaviour. However, an examination of the children’s verbatim responses through the use of thematic analysis revealed the complex nature of the relationship between parent and child concerning tolerance for mistakes. In the second study, I explored on whether the children’s repeated exposure to unfairness would contribute to their display of grudge-holding against a mother or a best friend in the scenarios and this investigation involved 55 local primary children, whose ages ranged from 8- to 12-years-old, in Wellington, New Zealand. The children participated in individual scenario-based interview sessions, which included three imaginary tasks over the two time periods, one week apart from each other. The children’s levels of grudge-holding was measured by analysing the possible increase in hostility, which the children expressed from Time 1 to Time 2. The study showed that a repeated experience of unfairness had a noticeable effect on the children’s level of hostility towards the person who was unfair and especially towards the best friend. The children’s verbatim comments also suggested some evidence of accumulated negativity in their responses to an unfairness experience. Thus, this study proved to be a suitable paradigm for operationalising grudge-holding in children.

Fairness, forgiveness and grudge-holding are concepts which underlie many aspects of our interpersonal relationships. Fairness is the foundation of our day-to-day communication with others and forgiveness is concerned with a positive strategy used to manage negative emotional experiences of underserved [i.e. undeserved] unfair treatment. Grudge-holding results as an accumulation of negative feelings, which are associated with the original experience of unfairness. Two experimental studies investigated children’s perceptions of, feelings about, and reactions towards the unfair behaviour of a mother and a friend, by individually inviting the children to scenario-based interview sessions, which included three imaginary tasks. The children were asked to judge the fairness of a mother and a best friend’s treatment towards a child protagonist and to report their associated feelings, after listening to a scenario that described an interaction between a child and a mother and an interaction between a child and a friend. They further responded to three scenario-based experimental tasks, regarding their willingness to grant forgiveness, as opposed to expressions of hostility. In the first study, the children’s willingness to forgive, as a result of unfairness, was explored with 82 local primary school children in Palmerston North, New Zealand, whose ages ranged from 8- to 11-years-old, in addition to 50 parents of these participating children. The parents also completed a questionnaire about their approaches to their children’s common misbehaviours. The study found that the children were typically willing to grant forgiveness to a mother, even though she had been unfair. Their forgiveness tendencies were not related to aspects of parental disciplinary behaviour. However, an examination of the children’s verbatim responses through the use of thematic analysis revealed the complex nature of the relationship between parent and child concerning tolerance for mistakes. In the second study, I explored on whether the children’s repeated exposure to unfairness would contribute to their display of grudge-holding against a mother or a best friend in the scenarios and this investigation involved 55 local primary children, whose ages ranged from 8- to 12-years-old, in Wellington, New Zealand. The children participated in individual scenario-based interview sessions, which included three imaginary tasks over the two time periods, one week apart from each other. The children’s levels of grudge-holding was measured by analysing the possible increase in hostility, which the children expressed from Time 1 to Time 2. The study showed that a repeated experience of unfairness had a noticeable effect on the children’s level of hostility towards the person who was unfair and especially towards the best friend. The children’s verbatim comments also suggested some evidence of accumulated negativity in their responses to an unfairness experience. Thus, this study proved to be a suitable paradigm for operationalising grudge-holding in children.

Η συμβουλευτική και ανάπτυξη της σταδιοδρομίας παρουσιάζει έντονο ερευνητικό ενδιαφέρον, το οποίο εστιάζεται στην μελέτη των παραγόντων που παρεμποδίζουν την επιτυχή λήψη απόφασης. Λαμβάνοντας υπόψη την σύνθετη αλληλλεπίδραση μεταξύ σκέψεων, συναισθημάτων, αποφάσεων και δράσης, στην παρούσα μελέτη διερευνήσαμε την σχέση των δυσλειτουργικών σκέψεων σταδιοδρομίας και των δυσθυμικών συναισθημάτων με την επαγγελματική αναποφασιστικότητα. Η μετανεωτερικότητα και ο κονστρουκτιβισμός μάς έδωσαν το πρόδηλο πλεονέκτημα να αξιοποιήσουμε ποιοτικές μεθοδολογικές προσεγγίσεις, προκειμένου να διερευνήσουμε τις εμφανείς και κυρίως τις λανθάνουσες εσωτερικές διεργασίες, νοητικές και συναισθηματικές, οι οποίες αλληλλεπιδρούν και επενεργούν στην διαδικασία λήψης αποφάσεων για την σταδιοδρομία. Ως μέθοδο έρευνας προκρίναμε την μελέτη περίπτωσης ενός μεμονωμένου προσώπου, προϊουσών των συμβουλευτικών παρεμβάσεων. Η τριγωνοποίηση περισσότερων μεθοδολογικών εργαλείων αποτέλεσε έναν ισχυρό τρόπο εφαρμογής της ταυτόχρονης εγκυρότητας. Το μοναδικό παράδειγμα ενός πραγματικού προσώπου, ως επίκεντρο της ερευνητικής στρατηγικής, μας έδωσε την δυνατότητα να διερευνήσουμε και να κατανοήσουμε σε βάθος τις δυσλειτουργικές σκέψεις και τα δυσθυμικά συναισθήματα, τα οποία οδηγούν σε αναποφασιστικότητα σχετικά με την ανάπτυξη σταδιοδρομίας. Το ερευνητικό υποκείμενο, στην αρχή της ενηλικιότητας, ενώ είχε φτάσει με επιτυχία σε λήψη απόφασης, δεν ακολούθησε την προεπιλεγμένη σταδιοδρομία. Η μελέτη κατέδειξε την παρουσία δυσλειτουργικών σκέψεων και δυσθυμικών συναισθημάτων, τα οποία δεν σχετίζονταν με την έλλειψη πληροφόρησης ή την απουσία δομής και εμπιστοσύνης αλλά με προσωπικές συγκρούσεις, στην προσπάθεια συμβιβασμού και ταυτόχρονης ικανοποίησης των προσωπικών προτιμήσεων και των δυσλειτουργικών πεποιθήσεων για την επιλογή σταδιοδρομίας. Η παρούσα μελέτη παρουσιάζει ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον, καταδεικνύοντας ότι τα γεγονότα ζωής και οι τραυματικές εμπειρίες επηρεάζουν σε σημαντικό βαθμό την επαγγελματική αναποφασιστικότητα, επιδρώντας τόσο σε γνωστικό όσο και σε συναισθηματικό επίπεδο. Επιπρόσθετα, η συγκαιρινή οικονομιοκοινωνική πραγματικότητα ενισχύει τις δυσλειτουργικές σκέψεις, οι οποίες αφορούν στον εαυτό, στον εξωτερικό κόσμο και στο μέλλον. Τα δυσθυμικά συναισθήματα, όπως θλίψη, απαισιοδοξία, θυμός, άγχος, αίσθημα αποτυχίας, απώλεια ικανοποίησης και απουσία νοήματος, αποβαίνουν δυσλειτουργικά, όταν παρεμβαίνουν στην ικανότητα του ατόμου να επιλύει προβλήματα, να προβαίνει σε λήψη αποφάσεων και να δρα αποτελεσματικά. Η διερεύνηση των γνωστικών και συναισθηματικών παραγόντων σχετικά με την επαγγελματική αναποφασιστικότητα των νέων, αποσκοπεί στον εμπλουτισμό των θεωριών συμβουλευτικής και στην βελτίωση των παρεχόμενων συμβουλευτικών παρεμβάσων. Ωστόσο, απαιτείται περαιτέρω θεωρητικά στηριγμένη έρευνα για την πλήρη κατανόηση της επαγγελματικής αναποφασιστικότητας. / Career counselling and development is of considerable interest in terms of research, which focuses on the study of the factors which hinder successful decision-making. Taking into consideration the complex interaction between thoughts, feelings, decisions and action, in the present study we investigated the relationship between dysfunctional career thoughts and negative feelings and career indecision. Postmodernism and Constructivism have given us the clear advantage of being able to make use of qualitative methodological approaches in our study in order to investigate the visible but mainly the latent internal processes, both mental and emotional, which interact and affect the procedure of career decision-making. As a method of research we selected the case study of an isolated individual, during the course of counselling activities. The triangulation of a number of methodological tools constituted a powerful means of implementing simultaneous validity. The only example of a real person as the focus of a research strategy enabled us to explore and comprehend in depth the dysfunctional thoughts and negative feelings which lead to indecision in relation to career development. The subject of the research, at the outset of adulthood, while having successfully reached a career decision, did not follow the chosen career. The study clearly demonstrated the presence of dysfunctional thoughts and negative feelings, which were not related to a lack of information or a lack of structure or confidence, but to personal conflicts, in an attempt to reconcile and simultaneously satisfy personal preferences and dysfunctional beliefs concerning the choice of career. The present study is of particular interest, since it clearly demonstrates that the events of life and traumatic experiences influence career indecision to a great extent, with consequences both on cognitive and emotional levels. In addition, the contemporary socio-economic reality intensifies dysfunctional thoughts which concern the self, the internal world and the future. Negative feelings, such as sadness, pessimism, anger, stress, a sense of failure, lack of satisfaction and lack of meaning, prove to be dysfunctional when they interfere with the individual’s ability to resolve problems to take a decision and to act effectively. The investigation of cognitive and emotional factors in relation to career indecision among young people aims to enrich counselling theory and improve the counselling which is offered. Nevertheless, further theoretically supported research is required so as to achieve a full understanding of career indecision.

The purpose of this research was to explore HIV/AIDS stigma in the workplace, with a special focus on the stigmatised. The sample consisted of 10 HIV/AIDS positive employees. A qualitative interview schedule was designed. The interview guide was used to facilitate one-on-one interviews with each participant. An analysis of the data revealed that the majority of the participants were shunned by family, friends and partners. Others were too ashamed or afraid to reveal their positive status. The majority of the participants did not feel comfortable revealing their positive status to their line managers and to their co-workers. All participants felt that others viewed people living with HIV/AIDS as dirty and unclean and many had been exposed to stigmatising behaviours towards them due to their HIV/AIDS positive status. As a coping mechanism, most participants noted that they would walk away if stigmatised against. Recommendations were made to address HIV/AIDS stigma in the workplace. / Industrial & Organisational Psychology / M. A. (Industrial and Organisation Psychology)

The purpose of this research was to explore HIV/AIDS stigma in the workplace, with a special focus on the stigmatised. The sample consisted of 10 HIV/AIDS positive employees. A qualitative interview schedule was designed. The interview guide was used to facilitate one-on-one interviews with each participant. An analysis of the data revealed that the majority of the participants were shunned by family, friends and partners. Others were too ashamed or afraid to reveal their positive status. The majority of the participants did not feel comfortable revealing their positive status to their line managers and to their co-workers. All participants felt that others viewed people living with HIV/AIDS as dirty and unclean and many had been exposed to stigmatising behaviours towards them due to their HIV/AIDS positive status. As a coping mechanism, most participants noted that they would walk away if stigmatised against. Recommendations were made to address HIV/AIDS stigma in the workplace. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. A. (Industrial and Organisation Psychology)