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BMP Pathway and Reactive Retinal GliosisDharmarajan, Subramanian 06 March 2013 (has links)
Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Reactive gliosis is known to have a beneficial and a degenerative effect following injury to neurons. Although many factors have been implicated in reactive gliosis, their role in regulating this change is still unclear. We investigated the role of bone morphogenetic proteins in reactive gliosis in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, IHC analysis indicated reactive gliosis in the 6 week Ins2Akita mouse and WPK rat retinas. Expression of BMP7 was upregulated in these models, leading to an increase in the phosphorylation of downstream SMAD1. In vitro, treatment of murine retinal astrocyte cells with a strong oxidizing agent such as sodium peroxynitrite regulated RNA levels of various markers, including GFAP, CSPGs, MMPs and TIMPs. BMP7 treatment also regulated RNA levels to a similar extent, suggesting reactive gliosis. Treatment with high glucose DMEM and BMP4, however, did not elicit increase in levels to a similar degree. Increase in SMAD levels and downstream targets of SMAD signaling such as ID1, ID3 and MSX2 was also observed following treatment with sodium peroxynitrite in vitro and in the 6 week Ins2Akita mouse retinas in vivo. These data concur with previously established data which show an increase in BMP7 levels following injury. It also demonstrates a role for BMP7 in gliosis following disease. Further, it suggests SMAD signaling to play a role in initiating reactivity in astrocytes as well as in remodeling the extracellular matrix following injury and in a disease condition.
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Regulation of mammalian spinal locomotor networks by glial cellsActon, David January 2017 (has links)
Networks of interneurons within the spinal cord coordinate the rhythmic activation of muscles during locomotion. These networks are subject to extensive neuromodulation, ensuring appropriate behavioural output. Astrocytes are proposed to detect neuronal activity via Gαq-linked G-protein coupled receptors and to secrete neuromodulators in response. However, there is currently a paucity of evidence that astrocytic information processing of this kind is important in behaviour. Here, it is shown that protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1), a Gαq-linked receptor, is preferentially expressed by glia in the spinal cords of postnatal mice. During ongoing locomotor-related network activity in isolated spinal cords, PAR1 activation stimulates release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is hydrolysed to adenosine extracellularly. Adenosine then activates A1 receptors to reduce the frequency of locomotor-related bursting recorded from ventral roots. This entails inhibition of D1 dopamine receptors, activation of which enhances burst frequency. The effect of A1 blockade scales with network activity, consistent with activity-dependent production of adenosine by glia. Astrocytes also regulate activity by controlling the availability of D-serine or glycine, both of which act as co-agonists of glutamate at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs). The importance of NMDAR regulation for locomotor-related activity is demonstrated by blockade of NMDARs, which reduces burst frequency and amplitude. Bath-applied D-serine increases the frequency of locomotor-related bursting but not intense synchronous bursting produced by blockade of inhibitory transmission, implying activity-dependent regulation of co-agonist availability. Depletion of endogenous D-serine increases the frequency of locomotor-related but not synchronous bursting, indicating that D-serine is required at a subset of NMDARs expressed by inhibitory interneurons. Blockade of the astrocytic glycine transporter GlyT1 increases the frequency of locomotor-related activity, but application of glycine has no effect, indicating that GlyT1 regulates glycine at excitatory synapses. These results indicate that glia play an important role in regulating the output of spinal locomotor networks.
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Морфолошка анализа нервних и глијалних ћелија главног маслинастог једра човека / Morfološka analiza nervnih i glijalnih ćelija glavnog maslinastog jedra čoveka / A morphological analysis of the neuronal and glial cells in the human principal olivary nucleusRadošević Dragana 01 November 2019 (has links)
<p>Главно маслинасто једро је највећи део доњег маслинастог комплекса. На пресеку главно маслинасто једро има изглед наборане врећице са дном које гледа ка спољашњој површини продужене мождине и отвором који је окренут унутра и дорзално. Главно маслинасто једро је укључено у просторну и временску организацију покрета и моторног учења, учења које је повезано са вежбањем, просуђивања времена интервала и брзине покретних стимулуса и когнитивних операција у простору. Популацију неурона главног маслинастог једра чине мултиполарни (90%) и интернеурони (10%). Дендритска арборизација неурона главног маслинастог једра је веома комплексна и различитог је облика (сферична или асиметрична), а правац пружања дендрита може да буде радијалан или кружан. Структурну и функционалну потпору неуронима пружају глијалне ћелије (астроцити, олигодендроцити и микроглија). Глијалне ћелије окружују неуроне и окупирају међунеуронске просторе где одржавају микросредину погодну за активност и виталност неурона. Старење представља природан и временски зависан процес који је карактерисан прогресивном појавом иреверзибилних промена у ћелијама, што резултира опадањем саморегулаторних способности јединке. У току старења, долази до нарушавања природног окружења неурона и глијалних ћелија што се одражава на њихов број, величину и изглед тела, дендритску крошњу и синаптичку организацију. Циљеви: Циљеви истраживања су да се утврди да ли се параметри морфологије неурона и глијалних ћелија разликују између старосних група, као и да се квантитативном анализом провери могућност класификације неурона и глијалних ћелија према квалитативном опису. Материјал и методе: Узорак студије је чинило 30 обостраних исечака главног маслинастог једра подељених у три старосне групе (други период сазревања (36-60 год.), рани период старења (61-75 год.) и касни период старења (76-90 год.)). Извршена је хистолошка обрада узорака Голџијевом методом импрегнације а микроскопске слике резова су дигитализоване а затим трансформисане у бинарне и скелетонизоване слике. Квалитативно су процењиване особине слика неурона (259) и глијалних ћелија (419) а квантитативна анализа величине, облика, гранања, дужине и сложености испитиваних ћелија спроведена је израчунавањем 22 (геометријска, компјутациона и фрактална) параметра. Резултати: Квалитативном проценом уочене су разлике у изгледу тела и неуронског поља, дендритске крошње, правца пружања дендрита, и распореда неурона у главном маслинастом једру. Квалитативна процена глијалних ћелија омогућила је њихов опис према врстама (астроцити, олигодендроцити и микроглија). Квантитативно испитивање геометријских параметара је показало да се неурони и глијалне ћелије не могу класификовати према величини. Неурони треће старосне групе имају мање вредности параметара који квантификују сложеност тела, неуронског поља и дендритске крошње, као и параметре дужине неурона. Површина тела, параметри дужине глијалне ћелије и сложеност глијалне крошње астроцита, значајно су мањи у узорку треће старосне групе, у поређењу са првом и другом. Олигодендроцити прве и друге старосне групе имају веће параметре који дефинишу величину и дужину ћелија, а мање вредности фракталне димензије сложености (тела, глијалног поља и глијалне крошње), од треће старосне групе. Закључци: Касни период старења нервног система резултирао је појавом регресивних промена на неуронима. Астроцити већ у раном периоду старења подлежу атрофичним променама на нивоу тела, глијалног поља и наставака, док олигодендроцити у касном периоду старења задржавају сложеност у грађи.</p> / <p>Glavno maslinasto jedro je najveći deo donjeg maslinastog kompleksa. Na preseku glavno maslinasto jedro ima izgled naborane vrećice sa dnom koje gleda ka spoljašnjoj površini produžene moždine i otvorom koji je okrenut unutra i dorzalno. Glavno maslinasto jedro je uključeno u prostornu i vremensku organizaciju pokreta i motornog učenja, učenja koje je povezano sa vežbanjem, prosuđivanja vremena intervala i brzine pokretnih stimulusa i kognitivnih operacija u prostoru. Populaciju neurona glavnog maslinastog jedra čine multipolarni (90%) i interneuroni (10%). Dendritska arborizacija neurona glavnog maslinastog jedra je veoma kompleksna i različitog je oblika (sferična ili asimetrična), a pravac pružanja dendrita može da bude radijalan ili kružan. Strukturnu i funkcionalnu potporu neuronima pružaju glijalne ćelije (astrociti, oligodendrociti i mikroglija). Glijalne ćelije okružuju neurone i okupiraju međuneuronske prostore gde održavaju mikrosredinu pogodnu za aktivnost i vitalnost neurona. Starenje predstavlja prirodan i vremenski zavisan proces koji je karakterisan progresivnom pojavom ireverzibilnih promena u ćelijama, što rezultira opadanjem samoregulatornih sposobnosti jedinke. U toku starenja, dolazi do narušavanja prirodnog okruženja neurona i glijalnih ćelija što se odražava na njihov broj, veličinu i izgled tela, dendritsku krošnju i sinaptičku organizaciju. Ciljevi: Ciljevi istraživanja su da se utvrdi da li se parametri morfologije neurona i glijalnih ćelija razlikuju između starosnih grupa, kao i da se kvantitativnom analizom proveri mogućnost klasifikacije neurona i glijalnih ćelija prema kvalitativnom opisu. Materijal i metode: Uzorak studije je činilo 30 obostranih isečaka glavnog maslinastog jedra podeljenih u tri starosne grupe (drugi period sazrevanja (36-60 god.), rani period starenja (61-75 god.) i kasni period starenja (76-90 god.)). Izvršena je histološka obrada uzoraka Goldžijevom metodom impregnacije a mikroskopske slike rezova su digitalizovane a zatim transformisane u binarne i skeletonizovane slike. Kvalitativno su procenjivane osobine slika neurona (259) i glijalnih ćelija (419) a kvantitativna analiza veličine, oblika, grananja, dužine i složenosti ispitivanih ćelija sprovedena je izračunavanjem 22 (geometrijska, kompjutaciona i fraktalna) parametra. Rezultati: Kvalitativnom procenom uočene su razlike u izgledu tela i neuronskog polja, dendritske krošnje, pravca pružanja dendrita, i rasporeda neurona u glavnom maslinastom jedru. Kvalitativna procena glijalnih ćelija omogućila je njihov opis prema vrstama (astrociti, oligodendrociti i mikroglija). Kvantitativno ispitivanje geometrijskih parametara je pokazalo da se neuroni i glijalne ćelije ne mogu klasifikovati prema veličini. Neuroni treće starosne grupe imaju manje vrednosti parametara koji kvantifikuju složenost tela, neuronskog polja i dendritske krošnje, kao i parametre dužine neurona. Površina tela, parametri dužine glijalne ćelije i složenost glijalne krošnje astrocita, značajno su manji u uzorku treće starosne grupe, u poređenju sa prvom i drugom. Oligodendrociti prve i druge starosne grupe imaju veće parametre koji definišu veličinu i dužinu ćelija, a manje vrednosti fraktalne dimenzije složenosti (tela, glijalnog polja i glijalne krošnje), od treće starosne grupe. Zaključci: Kasni period starenja nervnog sistema rezultirao je pojavom regresivnih promena na neuronima. Astrociti već u ranom periodu starenja podležu atrofičnim promenama na nivou tela, glijalnog polja i nastavaka, dok oligodendrociti u kasnom periodu starenja zadržavaju složenost u građi.</p> / <p>The principal olivary nucleus is the largest part of the inferior olivary complex. On the cross-section, the principal olivary nucleus has the appearance of a folded bag with a bottom looking to the outer surface of the medulla oblongata and hilum that is turned inward and dorsally. The principal olivary nucleus is involved in spatial and temporal organization of movement and motor learning, learning which is related to exercise, coordination of interval time with speed of stimuli and cognitive operations. Neuronal population of principal olivary nucleus is consists of multipolar neurons (90%) and interneurons (10%). Dendritic arborization of olivary neurons is very complex with a spherical and asymmetrical shape and radial or circular dendrites. Structural and functional support for neurons is provided by the glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia). Glial cells surround neurons and occupy interneuronal spaces where they maintain a suitable microenvironment for the neuronal activity and vitality. Aging is a physiological and time-dependent process characterized by the progressive irreversible changes of the cells, resulting in a decrease in self-regulatory capabilities. During aging, the natural environment of neurons and glial cells is affected, which reflects on their number, size and body structure, the dendritic arborization, and synaptic organization. Aims: The aims of the research were to determine whether the morphology of neurons and glial cells differ between age groups and to quantitatively analyze the possibility of classification of neurons and glial cells according to their qualitative description. Material and methods: The study sample consisted of 30 two-sided sections of the principal olivary nucleus divided into a three age groups (the second period of maturation (36-60 years), early aging (61-75 years) and late aging (76-90 years)). Histological preparation of samples (by Golgi's method of impregnation) was performed and the microscopic images were digitized and then transformed into a binary and skeletonized forms. Neurons (259) and glial cells (419) were qualitatively evaluated and the quantitative analysis of the size, shape, branching, length and complexity was carried out by calculating 22 (geometric, computer and fractal) parameters. Results: Qualitative estimation revealed the differences in the appearance of the neuronal body and neuronal field, dendritic arborisation, direction of dendrites and position of neurons inside the principal olivary neucleus. A qualitative evaluation of glial cells enabled description of their types (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia). Quantitative testing of geometric parameters has shown that neurons and glial cells cannot be classified according to their size. Neurons from third age group have lesser values of parameters that quantify the body complexity, the neuronal field, and the dendritic arborization, as well as parameters of the neuronal length. The body area, parameters of the astrocytes length and the astrocyte arborization complexity, are significantly lower in the sample of the third age group, in compared with the first and the second. Oligodendrocytes of the first and second age group have larger parameters that define the cell length, and lower values of the fractal dimension of body, glial field and glial arborization complexity, from the third age group. Conclusions: Late aging period of the nervous system resulted in a regressive changes on neurons. During the early aging period astrocytes undergo to atrophic changes of body, glial filed and processes, while the oligodendrocytes in the late period of aging retain their structure complexity.</p>
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Expression of histone deacetylase enzymes in murine and chick optic nerveTiwari, Sarika January 2013 (has links)
Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Epigenetic alterations have been shown to control cell type specification and differentiation leading to the changes in chromatin structure and organization of many genes. HDACs have been well documented to play an important role in both neurogenesis and gliogenesis in ganglionic eminence and cortex-derived cultures. However, the role of HDACs in glial cell type specification and differentiation in the optic nerve has not been well described. As a first step towards understanding their role in glial cell type specification, we have examined histone acetylation and methylation levels as well as the expression levels and patterns of the classical HDACs in both murine and chick optic nerve. Analysis of mRNA and protein levels in the developing optic nerve indicated that all 11 members of the classical HDAC family were expressed, with a majority declining in expression as development proceeded. Based on the localization pattern in both chick and murine optic nerve glial cells, we were able to group the classical HDACs: predominantly nuclear, nuclear and cytoplasmic, predominantly cytoplasmic. Nuclear expression of HDACs during different stages of development studied in this project in both murine and chick optic nerve glial cells suggests that HDACs play a role in stage-dependent changes in gene expression that accompany differentiation of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Examination of localization pattern of the HDACs is the first step towards identifying the specific HDACs involved directly in specification and differentiation of glia in optic nerve.
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mTOR regulates Aurora A via enhancing protein stabilityFan, Li 11 July 2014 (has links)
Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a key regulator of protein synthesis. Dysregulation of mTOR signaling occurs in many human cancers and its inhibition causes arrest at the G1 cell cycle stage. However, mTOR’s impact on mitosis (M-phase) is less clear. Here, suppressing mTOR activity impacted the G2-M transition and reduced levels of M-phase kinase, Aurora A. mTOR inhibitors did not affect Aurora A mRNA levels. However, translational reporter constructs showed that mRNA containing a short, simple 5’-untranslated region (UTR), rather than a complex structure, is more responsive to mTOR inhibition. mTOR inhibitors decreased Aurora A protein amount whereas blocking proteasomal degradation rescues this phenomenon, revealing that mTOR affects Aurora A protein stability. Inhibition of protein phosphatase, PP2A, a known mTOR substrate and Aurora A partner, restored mTOR-mediated Aurora A abundance. Finally, a non-phosphorylatable Aurora A mutant was more sensitive to destruction in the presence of mTOR inhibitor. These data strongly support the notion that mTOR controls Aurora A destruction by inactivating PP2A and elevating the phosphorylation level of Ser51 in the “activation-box” of Aurora A, which dictates its sensitivity to proteasomal degradation. In summary, this study
is the first to demonstrate that mTOR signaling regulates Aurora-A protein expression and stability and provides a better understanding of how mTOR regulates mitotic kinase expression and coordinates cell cycle progression. The involvement of mTOR signaling in the regulation of cell migration by its upstream activator, Rheb, was also examined. Knockdown of Rheb was found to promote F-actin reorganization and was associated with Rac1 activation and increased migration of glioma cells. Suppression of Rheb promoted platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) expression. Pharmacological inhibition of PDGFR blocked these events. Therefore, Rheb appears to suppress tumor cell migration by inhibiting expression of growth factor receptors that in turn drive Rac1-mediate actin polymerization.
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