Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a heterogeneous class of neurodevelopmental disorders that share the three core behavioral symptoms of impaired social interactions, communication deficits, and restrictive and repetitive behaviors. Our previous studies identified the novel X-linked ASD gene NEXMIF (KIAA2022, KIDLIA). Mutations in NEXMIF leading to loss of its protein product are responsible for the development of autistic features and intellectual disability in humans. However, the role NEXMIF plays in brain development and ASD remains largely unknown. Therefore, I investigated the behavioral impairments and cellular and molecular dysregulation that result from loss of NEXMIF in a transgenic mouse model. I found that male NEXMIF-/y hemizygous knockout (KO) mice replicate the behavioral alterations reported in affected humans and that cultured neurons from NEXMIF-/y KO brains show a significant decrease in neurite outgrowth, synaptic protein expression, and spine and synapse density. Loss of NEXMIF in cultured neurons also leads to altered expression of many genes including several involved in synaptic development and function. Reintroduction of some of the downregulated genes in cultured neurons rescued the decreased spine density and synaptic AMPAR levels observed from loss of NEXMIF. Several clinical reports have indicated that in females, haploinsufficiency of the X-linked NEXMIF gene causes symptoms similar to those observed in males lacking NEXMIF. Therefore, I examined the behavioral and molecular phenotypes in a transgenic mouse model of NEXMIF haploinsufficiency, female NEXMIF+/- mice. These animals displayed ASD-like behaviors, including impaired social interactions, repetitive self-grooming, and memory deficits. NEXMIF haploinsufficiency results in mosaic expression of the protein, resulting in two populations of neurons in the brain, those that express NEXMIF and those that do not. Interestingly, I found that both types of neurons demonstrated impairments in dendritic outgrowth, synaptic density, and the expression of important synaptic proteins. Together, these findings provide new insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of NEXMIF-dependent ASD and the role of NEXMIF in neurodevelopment, in both males and females.

Ephrins and Eph receptors have been implicated in a number of developmental processes including axon growth and guidance. One important guidepost is the central nervous system midline, where ephrins and Eph receptors have been implicated. At the embryonic midline, axons either cross into the contralateral central nervous system (CNS) targeting appropriate partners on the opposite side or remain ipsilateral extending either rostrally or caudally. In these studies, we examine a major forebrain commissure called the corpus callosum (CC). Agenesis of the CC is a rare birth defect that occurs in isolated conditions and in combination with other developmental cerebral abnormalities. Recent identification of families of growth and guidance molecules has generated interest in the mechanisms that regulate callosal growth. One family, ephrins and Eph receptors, has been implicated in mediating midline pathfinding decisions; however, the complexity of these interactions has yet to be unraveled. This dissertation sheds light on which B-class ephrins and Eph receptors function to regulate CC midline growth, and how these molecules interact with important guideposts during development. We also show that multiple Eph receptors (B1, B2, B3, and A4) and B-class ephrins (B1, B2, and B3) are present and function in developing forebrain callosal fibers based on both spatial and temporal expression patterns and analysis of gene-targeted knockout mice. Defects are most pronounced in the combination double knockout mice, suggesting that compensatory mechanisms exist for several of these family members. Furthermore, these CC defects range from mild hypoplasia to complete agenesis and Probst's bundle formation. Further analysis of the ephrinB3 gene revealed that Probst's bundle formation may reflect aberrant glial formations which alter the normal architecture of midline glia resulting in one potential mechanism of this abnormal phenotype. Another potential mechanism we discovered is a role for EphB1 receptor in the altered sensitivity of CC axons to midline guidance cues. Removal of this receptor resulted in cortical axons responding to GW guidepost cells with increased sensitivity. Our results support a significant role for ephrins and Eph receptors in CC development and may provide insight to possible mechanisms involved in axon midline crossing as well how failed molecular and genetic mechanisms may contribute to human CC disorders. Lastly, we show that one fiber tract that remains ipsilateral in the forebrain may use distinct midline guideposts to regulate proper growth and guidance. These findings implicate additional ephrins and Eph receptors in CC midline guidance than previously known and reveal novel mechanisms in mice, which may be pertinent to human disease states that result in agenesis of the CC.

<p>Apoptosis is a conserved mode of cell death executed by a group of proteases named caspases, which collectively ensure tissue homeostasis in multicellular organisms by triggering a program of cellular "suicide" in response to developmental cues or cellular damage. </p><p>Accumulating evidence suggests that cellular metabolism impinges directly upon the decision to initiate cell death. Several links between apoptosis and metabolism have been biochemically characterized. Using <italic>Xenopus</italic> oocyte extracts, our laboratory previously discovered that caspase-2 is suppressed by NADPH metabolism through an inhibitory phosphorylation at S164. However, the physiological relevance of these findings has not been investigated at the whole organism level. Studies presented in this dissertation utilize both Schneider's <italic>Drosophila</italic> S2 (S2) cells and transgenic animals to untangle the influence of metabolic status on fly apoptosis.</p><p>We first demonstrate a novel link between <italic>Drosophila</italic> apoptosis and metabolism by showing that cellular NADPH levels modulate the fly initiator caspase Dronc through its phosphorylation at S130. Biochemically and genetically blocking NADPH production removed this inhibitory phosphorylation, resulting in the activation of Dronc and the subsequent apoptotic cascade in cultured S2 cells and specific neuronal cells in transgenic animals. Similarly, non-phosphorylatable Dronc was found to be more potent than wild-type in triggering neuronal apoptosis. Moreover, upregulation of NADPH prevented Dronc-mediated apoptosis upon abrogation of <italic>Drosophila</italic> Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) protein 1 (DIAP1) by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) or cycloheximide (CHX) treatment, revealing a novel mechanism of DIAP1-independent apoptotic regulation in <italic>Drosophila</italic>. Mechanistically, the CaMKII-mediated phosphorylation of Dronc hindered its activation, but not its catalytic activity. As NADPH levels have been implicated in the regulation of oocyte death, we demonstrate here that a conserved regulatory circuit also coordinates somatic apoptosis and NADPH levels in <italic>Drosophila</italic>.</p><p>Given the regulatory role of NADPH in the activation of Dronc in <italic>Drosophila</italic> and caspase-2 in vertebrates, we then attempted to further elucidate the underlying signaling pathways. By tracking the catabolic fate of NADPH, we revealed that fatty acid synthase (FASN) activity was required for the metabolic suppression of Dronc, as both the chemical inhibitor orlistat and FASN dsRNA abrogated NADPH-mediated protection against CHX-induced apoptosis in S2 cells. Interestingly, it has been previously demonstrated that blocking FASN induces cell death in numerous cancers, including ovarian cancer; however, the mechanism is still obscure. As our results predict that suppression of FASN activity may prevent the inhibitory phosphorylation of Dronc and caspase 2 (at S130 and S164 respectively), we examined the contribution of caspase-2 to cell death induced by orlistat using ovarian cancer cells. Indeed, caspase-2 S164 was dephosphorylated upon orlistat treatment, initiating the cleavage and activation of caspase-2 and its downstream target, Bid. Knockdown of caspase-2 significantly alleviated orlistat-induced cell death, further illustrating its involvement.</p><p>Lastly, we developed an assay based on bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) to monitor the oligomerization of Dronc in S2 cells, a crucial step in its activation. The sensitivity of this assay has been validated with several apoptotic stimuli. A future whole-genome screen employing this assay is planned to provide new insights into this complex apoptotic regulatory network by unbiasedly identifying novel apoptotic regulators.</p> / Dissertation

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