This thesis utilizes the theory of feminism in all its implied branches in an attempt to critically review the subtle and sometimes deliberate subjugation of women in general and South Africa in particular. This occurs, in spite of the fact that there are laws in place that are meant to discourage women abuse. Juxtaposing this is the perspective conception of women, looking at themselves as subjects of virtue who deserve equal treatment to any other human being. It is through some oral forms that this reflection could be tested. Praise poetry, in the hands of a creative artist opens up a world of human emotions that could not be easily seen or felt, and yet it can simultaneously be used to manipulate situations. Language therefore could be seen as a powerful double-edged instrument. The patriarchal system, in this thesis, is exposed as that holy ideology turned unholy to achieve condescending agendas against women. The thin light of respect demonstrated by the traditionalist thinking is made to disappear into thin air, especially when contaminated by Western ideas. It is the resoluteness and the fair obstinacy of some both traditional and modern women that determinedly stood up to conscientise the world in terms of respect for human life irrespective. In this research, an exploration of literary elements within four Nguni languages, that is Siswati, isiZulu, isiNdebele, and isiXhosa reveals the singularity of purpose, for these elements to be manipulated to achieve domineering intentions. Be that as it may, tibongo (praise poems/ praises) of outstanding women who have served in traditional leadership in these language groups give reason to challenge any idea that women should by virtue be relegated to the back seat. Through these tibongo it becomes apparent that because of the women leaders’ stubborn fairness and unparalleled foresight, they have become personifications of democratic values and as such, role models and symbolic hope not only for the empowerment of women, but also for their total liberation from all negative perceptions and oppressions. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

The emergence of gay subcultures in Africa can be attributed to the colonial entrenchment of homophobia and homophobic laws. This emergence of gay subcultures alongside the merciless homophobia necessitated the creation of secretive forms of linguistic communication amongst the sub cultured gays. Among the Nguni people of South Africa, isiNgqumo emerged as the lingua franca within the Nguni gay subculture. This study focuses on the Nguni gay subculture in Durban and the employment of isiNgqumo by township and city/urban Nguni gay men termed skesanas. 36 young Nguni homosexual men and one older Nguni man were the participants who were interviewed. The methodology that was used in this study was ethnography. The study also relied on a snowballing technique to access numerous of the 36 young Nguni homosexual men. The study found that the Nguni gay subculture of Durban is stratified throughout several places within Durban, it is not one geographical location. Two gay clubs and two gay salons were visited as they are some of the locations where the Nguni gay subculture is located. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2009.

Observation of the frequency with which major decisions on issues affecting psychiatric patients were decided on material elicited from techniques like the Rorschach stimulated the investigation of the applicability of this technique to African patients. The nosological group chosen for this study was the schizophrenic group. Scrutiny into the literature revealed great diversity in conceptions of the etiology of the schizophrenic condition. To handle this material it was necessary to adopt a modification of the framework used in Friedman and Kaplan (1974). Having gone into the models on etiology it was evident that consistency was only possible in the realm of symptoms and diagnosis and the definition of schizophrenia as a group of psychotic disorders characterised by gross distortions of reality : the disorganisation and fragmentation of perception, thought and emotion and withdrawal from social interaction, was adopted. With this preconceived idea of schizophrenia three hypotheses were formulated to test the diagnostic utility of the Rorschach with Nguni schizophrenic female subjects. Summary, p. 104.

In the Xhosa culture, Nguni cattle have always been valued due to cultural rituals purpose but were not viewed from a development perspective. In fact, traditionally, in Xhosa society, cattle were used not only as primary sources of food such as milk, meat and other related secondary products, but in the performance of rituals. From milk one can get sour milk (amasi) which is a staple diet for both young ones and adults. Furthermore, butter, which was traditionally used for cosmetics purposes, is also derived from milk. Thus, the focus of this study is on the paradigm shift, as well as the role played by cattle in Xhosa cultural rituals and agriculture.

The objective of the current study was to compare tick loads, growth, carcass characteristics and meat quality of Nguni, Bonsmara and Angus steers raised on natural pasture. A total of 30, 7-month old steers each of Bonsmara and Angus, and 40 Nguni steers were kept at the University of Fort Hare Farm till slaughter at 18 months. Monthly weights of the steers were recorded. Carcasses were electrically stimulated. The m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum was sampled for the measurement of meat colour, pH, drip loss, sarcomere length (SL), water holding capacity (WHC), cooking losses, myofibrillar fragmentation length (MFL), Warner Bratzler shear force (WBSF), fatty acid profiles and sensory characteristics of the steers. Urine samples were collected at the slaughter line for the determination of stress hormone concentrations. The Nguni had the lowest tick load (P < 0.05) while the Angus had the highest tick load (P < 0.05). Tick load did not affect the growth rate and carcass characteristics of the steers. Bonsmara and Angus steers had higher (P < 0.05) carcass weight and dressing percentage than the Nguni steers. Meat quality characteristics were similar (P > 0.05) among all the breeds, except that Nguni meat was darker (L*) (P < 0.05) than meat from the other two breeds. The Bonsmara had the highest (P > 0.05) concentrations while the Nguni had the lowest (P > 0.05) concentrations of stress hormones. There were significant (P < 0.05) correlations between WB values of meat aged for two and 21 days in Nguni and Bonsmara, but not in Angus. The correlations among stress responsiveness hormones and meat quality were breed-dependent. Except monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and the n-6/n-3 ratio, fatty acid profiles among the breeds were similar (P > 0.05). Cholesterol levels among the breeds were similar (P > 0.05). The Nguni had the best (P < 0.05) sensory characteristics, such as flavour and tenderness. It can be concluded that while the Nguni is a small framed breed, its meat quality is similar to that of Bonsmara and Angus and has the best meat taste when raised on natural pasture.

One of the main themes of South African history is the modification of African tribal life and institutions by the impact of the white society. Both British officials and settlers played a part in this process, but with very different motives and effect. The British, anxious above all else to save defence expenditure, were not prepared to risk provoking a war and had very little incentive to invest large sums in the administration of tne tribes. Settlers, on the other hand, had a vested interest in manipulating tribal society for their own ends: not only did their personal security rely upon quiescent tribesmen, but so did the economic development of the colony, dependent as it was on trade and labour. in addition, the settlers lived, at least along the eastern border, in close contact with the tribes, and were therefore more conscious than officials of those aspects of tribal life which offended Victorian Christianity's ideas of decency and morality. Tribal society was regulated by tribal law under the control of the chiefs; in order to attack aspects of the society, alterations had to be enforced in tribal law. As a result, once the grant of Responsible Government in 1872 gave the settlers control of their own internal affairs, Cape policy on tribal law becomes of particular Interest as a study of how a colonial society attempted to impose often unwelcome changes on an indigenous people, and with what results for both societies. As the problem presented by the African tribes bulked so large in the settler view, there is very little documentation available on the position of the few Khoi and San still living in tribal units, and they have not been included in this study.

The Nguni sheep of Zululand, South Africa, are called the Zulu sheep. They are a source of food and cash for the rural farmers of KwaZulu-Natal. There is insufficient information available about the characteristics of this breed and accordingly the breed is classified as “insecure”. Documentation of characteristics of a breed is important for its utilisation, improvement or conservation. This study was undertaken to document (i) the utilization of the Zulu sheep, (ii) some morphological characteristics, (iii) establishing a cost effective body measurement recording means and (iv) the intra- and inter-population genetic variation of the breed using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. A survey was conducted to investigate the socio-economic and cultural values of the farmers attached to livestock including the Zulu sheep. A total of 76 rural farmers were interviewed in the areas of the Mhlathuze district in northern KwaZulu-Natal. Constraints and the indigenous knowledge of the farmers on livestock production were also recorded. The results confirmed that the Zulu sheep in the rural areas are indeed used as a source of protein and cash when necessary. Farmers reported that the Zulu sheep are tolerant to ticks and able to withstand the hot and humid conditions of northern KwaZulu-Natal. Goats and cattle as well as the Zulu sheep are also used for payment of dues in the tribal courts. Even so, Zulu sheep are not used for any cultural purposes. The system of management is fairly extensive. Some farmers apply indigenous knowledge as part of management practices. For instance, they use indigenous plants as nutrient supplements and for increasing the reproduction rate of these animals. Lack of modern animal husbandry skills was declared by the farmers as one of the main challenges. A perception among the farmers was that the Government could assist in addressing this challenge. Three populations of Zulu sheep reared extensively in three localities were used for the morphometric and genetic studies. The areas were the community of KwaMthethwa (Enqutshini), University of Zululand (UNIZULU) and Makhathini Research Station. Makhathini and KwaMthethwa are 260 and 40 km, respectively, away from UNIZULU. The morphometric study was undertaken to determine the extent of phenotypic diversity between Zulu sheep populations using six morphological characteristics. Effects of some factors (location, age, sex and season) on some of these traits were estimated. Results showed that the size of the body measurements, wither height (WH), heart girth (HG), live weight (LW) and scrotal circumference (SC) were significantly different between the populations. Variation in these body measurements was influenced significantly by the location, season, the sex and the age of sheep. Mature ewes weighed up to 32 kg whereas the rams weighed up to 38 kg. The differences in LW, HG and WH between the seasons were small. The SC increased with the age of the ram up to 28 cm for mature rams. Other traits observed were the colour and the ear length of Zulu sheep. Ear size ranged from ear buds to the most common large ears (9 to 14 cm). The dominating colours observed were brown and a combination of brown and white. Live weight prediction equations were estimated employing HG, WH and SC data. The LW prediction equations showed that the regression of HG and WH produce the best estimate equations of LW; however the HG alone also showed reliable LW estimates. Scrotal circumference was more precise for estimating the LW of younger rams below 22 months of age (R2 = 0.64 – 0.78). Fifty-two Zulu sheep from the three locations were used to assess the genetic variation within the Zulu sheep breed. A total of 2744 RAPD bands were generated ranging from 0.2 to 2 kb; ~46% of these bands were polymorphic. The genetic diversity was the lowest (5.17%) within the UNIZULU population, 8.62% within the KwaMthethwa population and highest (11.04%) within the Makhathini population. The genetic diversity between all populations was estimated at 21.91 %. Phenotypic diversity was relatively similar for the UNIZULU and Makhathini populations (41.25% and 45.63%, respectively). The phenotypic diversity between the three populations was 48.26%. Genetic and phenotypic diversity was lower for Makhathini and UNIZULU populations than for the KwaMthethwa population. It was concluded that the Zulu sheep is a smaller sized breed compared to the other South African indigenous sheep breeds like the Dorper which has been reported to have some similar characteristics to the Nguni sheep. The results confirmed that the Zulu breed has the capacity to survive without dipping and supplements during the dry season. This adaptation is of value to the communities of KwaZulu-Natal. Such characteristics warrant conserving the breed to prevent genetic erosion. The phenotypic and genetic diversity between the three populations of Zulu sheep may indicate that there is an opportunity of genetic exploitation by selecting animals based on phenotypic as well as genetic characteristics. In order to promote the conservation and sustainable use of the Zulu sheep, it was recommended that an open nucleus breeding scheme from lower-tier flocks (of the farmers) for pure breeding to nucleus flocks (in Government ranches) could be appropriate. The scheme would also address the challenges of animal husbandry as well as contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of the farmers. Farmers could use a tape measure to estimate the LW of sheep when they cannot afford scales. The morphological characteristics and the genetic diversity data generated from this study could be combined into a single data base for this sheep breed. More extensive studies, using the same or some additional phenotypic characters such as reproductive performance, need to be done. Genetic characteristics of Zulu sheep using microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA should be done to complement the present study. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Leptin, a 16 (kilo Dalton) kDa hormone secreted predominantly by white adipocytes, regulates reproduction, energy intake and expenditure, and is involved in immune system function. Previous studies have identified associations between polymorphism E2FB in the leptin gene (lep) of cattle and milk quality and quantity, feed intake, and fat deposition in dairy and beef cattle though further studies have shown inconclusive results. Furthermore, indigenous South African cattle have not been involved in lep investigations or the applicability of the marker in South African beef grading systems. An investigation was conducted into the association of an SNP of a cytosine (C) to thymine (T) SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) mutation in exon 2 of the bovine lep (leptin) gene with weight gain, body condition, carcass fat content and quality in a population of indigenous Nguni cattle (n = 70) as well as a population of exotic British Hereford cattle (n = 54). The Hereford population had higher T-allele frequencies and a lower P-value (P = 0.172) for the E2FB genotypes than the Nguni population (P = 0.958). The resulting E2FB lep genotypes CC, CT and TT did not show an association with the pre- and post-slaughter traits initial live weight (ILW), body condition score (BCS), slaughter live weight (SLW), carcass fat content (FAT), carcass conformation (CFN) or warm carcass mass (WCM) for either population though t-tests revealed an association with the CT genotype with increased ILW than TT and a significantly higher WG in the TT genotypes than the CT (P<0.05). Subsequently, differences in pre- and post-slaughter traits in both populations were largely attributable to breed differences. The Hereford population exhibited significantly higher WG, CFN, SLW, WCM and CCM (P<0.05) than the Nguni population. The Nguni displayed significantly higher ILW and BCS values when graded in terms of the commercial South African AAA feedlot system. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Information on milk production could be useful in designing strategies that would help to improve milk production in communal farming systems. This study was conducted to determine milk production and calf performance of Nguni and crossbreds under smallholder cattle production conditions. Four trials were conducted in the study. The objective of the first trial was to determine farmer perceptions on milk production and calf rearing in smallholder areas. Data were obtained from 218 smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire. Smallholder farmer sector is constituted by small scale commercial farmers and communal farmers. Small-scale commercial farmers in South Africa obtained farms from the government through land claims or they bought the farms. Their farming background is a communal type. Communal farmers are farmers that are sharing the same grazing land and animals are managed according to the experience of the owner. The findings in this study indicated that there were numerous constraints to milk production in smallholder areas. These included lack of technical expertise and poor veterinary support services. The farmers also indicated that calf performance was low. The second trial was conducted to determine if there were differences in calf performance, gastrointestinal parasites and nutritionally-related blood metabolites between Nguni and crossbred calves. Body weights and faecal samples were collected monthly until weaning at six months. The levels of total protein, albumin, globulins, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), glucose, cholesterol and minerals were determined monthly. Nguni calves had higher birth weights than crossbreds (P<0.05). Average daily gain and weaning weights of Nguni calves were greater than crossbred calves (P<0.05. Nguni calves had lower total protein at early age after birth (P<0.05). However, at weaning Nguni calves had higher total protein than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni calves had higher levels of glucose and NEFA concentrations than crossbred calves (P<0.05). In the third trial, milk utilisation patterns in smallholder areas of the Eastern Cape were assessed. Cattle owners (n = 130) were randomly selected in three different regions to determine milk consumption patterns, milk sales, prices and factors influencing these activities. The information was gathered using milk recording sheets, which were administered in February (early lactation) and June (late lactation) in 2009. Milk consumption per household was similar among the three districts (P>0.05). Milk was utilised as both fresh and sour. Fresh milk was utilised with tea/coffee and porridge. Excess fresh milk was utilised to feed pets (mostly cats and puppies). The puppies were fed on mostly whey, and, at times, on fresh milk. Sour milk was utilised to prepare of umvubo (a mixture of sour milk and scrambled porridge (umphokoqo) or a mixture of sour milk and bread). In some cases, excess milk was given to neighbours as a form of social investment and fame. The quality of milk from Nguni and crossbred cows was compared in the fourth trial. Milk samples were evaluated for quality in early (February), mid (April) and late (June) lactation in 2009. The essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids and fatty acids were determined. Nguni milk had higher amino acids and fatty acids concentration than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher arginine levels in the early and mid lactation periods compared to crossbred cows (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher methionine and threonine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). Methionine levels in Nguni were 0.15, 0.19 and 0.18 in early, mid and late lactation while crossbred had 0.05, 0.05 and 0.06 (g/100ml), respectively. There were significant interactions between lactation stage and genotype for lysine levels with Nguni milk having higher (P<0.05) lysine levels in the mid and late lactation periods. Nguni cows had higher tyrosine, glycine and proline levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In the early lactation, Nguni cows had higher serine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In mid lactation crossbred cows had higher serine levels than Nguni cows (P<0.05). There were significant differences between genotypes on fatty acid composition. Nguni milk had higher C12:0 levels than crossbreds (P<0.05). However, milk from crossbred cows had higher C14:0 levels than that for Nguni cows (P<0.05) and also had higher levels of C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids compared to Nguni cows. Crossbred milk had higher levels of C18n1n9t in early lactation period than Nguni and decreased as the stage of lactation progressed (P<0.05). In the early lactation, the levels of C18n1nC in Nguni milk were higher (P<0.05) than in late lactation. In the mid and late lactation, crossbred cows milk had higher C18n1nC levels than in early lactation (P<0.05). Lactation stage and genotype affected saturated fatty, monounsaturated fatty acids, cis-fatty acids and omega 3 (n-3) to omega 6 (n-6). In general, Nguni milk had higher mineral composition than crossbred milk (P<0.05). In conclusion, Nguni calves performed better than crossbred calves under communal rangelands. There is a need for crossing Nguni cows with dairy breeds in commercial dairying by smalhoder farmers as a strategy for improving both milk quality and quantity.

The objective of this study was to determine time budgets, blood urea content, total protein and body condition score as adaptive responses to seasonal dynamics by breeding Nguni cows and heifers reared on a sweetveld. Twenty four clinically healthy Nguni cows and heifers were selected for the study. The animals were grouped according to their parities namely: Parity 1 (n=5), Parity 2 (n=5), Parity 3-6 (old cows) (n=9) and in-calf heifers (n=5). Two separate experiments were conducted and running concurrently. In the first experiment time budgets (time spent walking, grazing, lying down, drinking water and browsing) of the cows and heifers were monitored for two consecutive days once a month, while in the second experiment blood samples were collected from the coccygeal vein once a month during weighing. Body condition scores were also determined during weighing times. Heifers maintained significantly (p0.05) of both blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (7.5±0.39 mmol/l) and TP (80.7±1.19 g/l) in November. All the animals had the least BUN levels in January (1.93±0.18 mmol/l) while the highest total protein (TP) (82.1±1.08 g/l) was recorded in February. All the animals showed distinct (p0.05) in most behavioural attributes in the cool-wet season. Heifers spent significantly (p0.05) body condition scores, amount of time spent browsing and drinking water. On the other hand, heifers (14.7±1.50%) and first parity cows (13.9±1.50%) traded-off most (p<0,05) of their time walking during the cool-dry season. Similarly heifers spent more time browsing (6.4±0.62%) forage plants (p<0.05) than all the cows during the cool-wet season. Grazing (r = 0.17) and standing (r = -0.18) were correlated (p<0.05) with all the behavioural attributes measured in this environment. It was concluded that seasonal dynamics in trade-off behaviour through time budgeting, maintenance of BUN and TP were necessary for the Nguni cows and heifers to maintain their body condition scores within a narrow range throughout the four seasons.