Herein is reported the synthesis of molecular probes for action of neuroactive steroids in vitro and in living organisms. In the first part, preparation of enantiomeric pregnane steroids is investigated, ultimately resulting into the total synthesis of ent-progesterone. The chirality of the target molecule is introduced by a highly effective organocatalytic asymmetric Robinson annulation. A new method for the sequential construction of five-membered carbocyclic ring is introduced as the key step. This is composed of substrate-controlled copper-catalyzed conjugate addition followed by radical oxygenation and subsequent thermal cyclization employing the persistent radical effect. The synthesis of truncated neurosteroid analogs is described and their biological activity at the NMDA receptor is compared with the native hormone. In the second part, methodology for specific deuterium labeling of both angular methyls of the 5β-pregnane steroid core is explored. Special attention was paid to the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation as the tool for introduction of the last deuterium atom into the methyl group. Both positions were labelled with total of three deuterium atoms in high isotopic purity.

Increased airway smooth muscle (ASM) mass contributes to airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in asthma and is orchestrated by growth factors, cytokines and chemokines. Airway contractile responses are influenced by neuromediators, such as acetylcholine, and glutamate released by parasympathetic and sympathetic airway nerves. Hyperactivity of these neural elements, termed neurogenic inflammation, is linked with hypercontractility and AHR. Glutamate is a non-essential amino acid derivative, and its physiological role is traditionally considered with respect to its being the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in brain, and regulation of neuronal development and memory. In allergic inflammation, immune cells including dendritic cells, neutrophils and eosinophils, constitutively synthesize and release glutamate, which signals through activation of glutamate receptors, most important among which are ionotrophic N-methyl D-aspartate receptors (NMDA-R). We hypothesized that glutamatergic signaling mediated through NMDA-Rs plays an important role in inducing functional Ca2+ responses in human (H) ASM cells that can underpin airway hypercontractility. We investigated the expression and function of NMDA-Rs in HASM cells, and assessed the effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on NMDA-R expression and functional responses. Moreover, we measured airway responses to NMDA in mice, murine thin cut lung slice preparations, and floating collagen gels seeded with HASMs. Our data reveal that airway myocytes express multi-subunit NMDA-R complexes that function as receptor-operated calcium channels (ROCCs), mobilizing intracellular Ca2+ in ASM in vitro and airway contraction ex vivo. Individual airway myocytes treated with NMDA-R agonist exhibit disparate temporal patterns of intercellular Ca2+ flux that can be partitioned into four discrete function sub-groups. Further we show that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) exposure modulates NMDA-R subunit expression, and these changes are associated with a shift in the distribution of myocytes in individual Ca2+-mobilization sub-groups in vitro. Further, post-TNF exposure, NMDA-R agonists’ treatment induced Ca2+-dependent airway dilation in murine lung slice preparations, an effect that was prevented by co-treatment with inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) or cyclooxygenase (COX). Taken together, we conclude that NMDA-R regulate HASM-mediated airway contraction and their role can be affected upon exposure to asthma-associated inflammatory mediators. Thus, NMDA-Rs are of relevance to mechanisms that determine airway narrowing and AHR associated with chronic respiratory diseases. / October 2015

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are ligand-gated ion channels activated by agonist glutamate and co-agonist glycine. They play a key role in mediating the fast excitatory synaptic neurotransmission in the mammalian central nervous system. To create a functional heterotetrameric receptor, the presence of two GluN1 subunits combined with GluN2 or GluN3 subunits is necessary. Previous studies confirmed the importance of M3 transmembrane helix and extracellularly localized cysteines in regulation of surface expression of functional NMDA receptors. The aim of my thesis is to elucidate an influence of clinically relevant mutations in M3 transmembrane helix and the role of all known cysteines that form disulphide bonds on surface delivery of NMDA receptor expressed in heterologous monkey kidney fibroblasts cell culture (COS-7). Using molecular biology methods, immunocytochemistry and microscopy I found that the clinically relevant mutations M641I and Y647S in GluN1 subunit and also the mutations of particular cysteines forming disulphide bonds caused substantial decrease of surface expression of NMDA receptors. Furthermore, I discovered that the effect of mutated GluN1 subunits on decrease of surface expression depends on the subunit composition. The contribution of my results lies in elucidating the...

A esquizofrenia é uma desordem neuropsiquiátrica de importância significativa para as pesquisas na área da saúde, porém, apesar de ser alvo de inúmeros estudos clínicos e básicos ainda são levantadas muitas dúvidas a respeito de sua etiologia, fisiopatologia e tratamento. Nos últimos anos, hipóteses que relacionam a esquizofrenia a alterações em sistemas neurotransmissores têm sido bem relevantes. Atualmente a hipótese glutamatérgica complementa a dopaminérgica, já que o bloqueio de receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo NMDA induz sintomas do tipo psicóticos em indivíduos saudáveis e exacerba ou precipita sintomas da esquizofrenia em indivíduos portadores da doença, sugerindo que um estado hipofuncional desses receptores possa causar alterações secundárias em outros sistemas neurotransmissores e provocar tanto os sintomas positivos e negativos quanto os déficits cognitivos da doença. O canabidiol (CBD) é um composto derivado da Cannabis sativa que não apresenta os efeitos psicotomiméticos e os sintomas colaterais geralmente provocados pela utilização da planta e que são, em sua maioria, atribuídos ao delta-9-tetrahidrocanabinol (THC). Recentemente os estudos a respeito da participação do sistema endocanabinóide em diversos estados fisiológicos e, também em transtornos psiquiátricos, apontam o uso terapêutico de canabinóides como uma estratégia promissora para o controle e prevenção de alguns sintomas ligados a transtornos psicóticos. O perfil antipsicótico do CBD já foi comprovado em modelos experimentais e até em análises clínicas, indicando que esse composto é capaz de prevenir estados psicóticos transitórios, provocados tanto pelo THC quanto pela ketamina, em modelos de psicose induzida. O objetivo deste trabalho foi incrementar as informações já existentes sobre o perfil antipsicótico proposto para o CBD, porém, em três tipos de tarefas comportamentais em roedores, que representam três classes de sintomas do tipo psicóticos que se assemelham aos sintomas da esquizofrenia: atividade locomotora, inibição pré-pulso do reflexo de sobressalto (PPI) e teste de interação social. No modelo utilizado, a S(+)-ketamina (KET) é eficaz na indução de comportamentos que representem sintomas do tipo psicóticos - provocou hiperlocomoção, déficit no filtro sensório-motor e prejuízo no comportamento social. Esses são foram reduzidos quando realizado pré-tratamento com clozapina, com exceção do teste de interação social. Os efeitos do CBD são de acordo com o que é descrito na literatura, apresentando uma curva em U farmacológica característica e diferentes efeitos 6 de acordo com a dose empregada. A análise no monitor de atividades indica que o pré- tratamento com CBD na dose de 30 mg/kg previne a hiperlocomoção induzida por KET, contrastando com o pré-tratamento com CBD na dose de 60 mg/kg, que provoca o aumento do comportamento exploratório após a administração de KET. No PPI, o CBD na dose de 30 mg/kg previne o déficit provocado pela administração de KET, demonstrando-se eficaz para o tratamento de prejuízos cognitivos que acompanham as psicoses; e aumenta o reflexo de sobressalto quando associado a KET. Porém, no teste de interação social, não foram detectadas diferenças significativas. Portanto, com esses resultados, demonstrou-se que o CBD pode ser realmente efetivo para o tratamento de determinados sintomas dos transtornos psicóticos, assim como indicado em alguns trabalhos já desenvolvidos. / Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder of significant importance for research in health care, however, despite being the target of numerous clinical and basic studies, there are still many doubts raised about its etiology, pathophysiology and treatment. In recent years, schizophrenia hypotheses that relate to changes in neurotransmitter systems have been very relevant. Currently, the glutamatergic hypothesis complements the dopaminergic, since blockade of NMDA glutamate receptors induces psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals and exacerbate them in patients with schizophrenia, suggesting that a hipofuncional state of these receptors may cause secondary changes in other neurotransmitter systems, leading to positive and negative symptoms and also to cognitive deficits of the disease. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a compound derived from Cannabis sativa that does not show neither the psychotomimetic effects nor side effect symptoms typically caused by the plant use, which are mostly attributed to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Recently studies about the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in various physiological states and also in psychiatric disorders, suggest the therapeutic use of cannabinoids as a promising strategy for the prevention and control of some symptoms linked, for example, to anxiety, epilepsy and psychotic disorders. The antipsychotic profile of CBD has been confirmed in experimental 7 models and even in clinical trials, indicating that this compound is capable of preventing transient psychotic states caused both by THC and S (+)-ketamine (KET) in psychosis-induced models. The objective of this study was to enhance the existing information on the antipsychotic profile proposed for the CBD, however, three types of behavioral tasks were made for the analysis of three classes of psychotic-like symptoms in rodents, which are manifested through hyperlocomotion (positive symptoms), impairment in social interaction (negative symptoms) and a deficit in sensorimotor gating (cognitive deficits). The effects achieved with CBD are in accordance with the described in literature, a characteristic Ushaped curve and different pharmacological effects according to dose used. The analysis in the open field reveals that animals pretreated with CBD at a dose of 30 mg/kg shows a reduction in KET-induced hyperlocomotion, contrasting with the effects of CBD at a dose of 60 mg/kg, that enhances exploratory behavior after KET injection. In the PPI, the CBD at a dose of 30 mg/kg prevented the deficit caused by KET administration, showing effectiveness for the treatment of cognitive impairments that accompany psychosis; and enhances startle reflex when associated to KET. Therefore, with these results, it was demonstrated that CBD may be really effective for the treatment of certain symptoms of psychotic disorders, in accordance to some already developed studies.

Les protéines membranaires comme les récepteurs, les canaux ioniques et les transporteurs possèdent des rôles cruciaux dans les processus biologiques tels que la signalisation physiologique et les fonctions cellulaires. La description dynamique et fonctionnelle des structures protéiques est fondamentale pour comprendre la plupart des processus concernant les macromolécules biologiques. L'incorporation, dans des protéines, d'acides aminés non naturels (Uaas) possédant des propriétés physiques ou chimiques spécifiques fournit un puissant outil pour définir la structure et la dynamique de protéines complexes. Ces sondes permettent le suivi et la détection en temps réel de la conformation des récepteurs et des complexes de signalisation. Les approches d'expansion du code génétique ont permis l'incorporation d'Uaas servant de sondes dans des protéines avec une précision moléculaire. L'expansion héréditaire du code génétique peut permettre d'étudier la biologie des protéines de manière systémique.Avec cette stratégie, des Uaas capables de photopontage ont été utilisés pour étudier la relation structure/fonction des Protéines G Couplées aux Récepteurs (GPCR), telles que l'identification de la liaison du ligand ou des interactions protéine-protéine, en détectant les changements dynamiques avec les Uaas spectroscopiques et l'étiquetage bioorthogonal. Sur la base d'applications relativement bien établies d'Uaa dans les GPCR, ici, les analyses fonctionnelles sont combinées à l'incorporation génétique d'un Uaa photosensible spécifique au site, p-azido-L-phénylalanine (AzF) dans d'autres protéines membranaires, pour détecter la protéine, les changements conformationnels et les interactions protéiques. Contrairement à d’autres molécules photosensibles qui permettent aux protéines de répondre à la lumière, l'insertion des Uaas directement dans la chaine d’acides aminés offre des possibilités uniques pour le photo-contrôle de la protéine. Les aspects dynamiques de l'allostérie sont plus difficiles à visualiser que les modèles structuraux statiques. Une stratégie photochimique est présentée pour caractériser la dynamique des mécanismes allostériques des récepteurs NMDA neuronaux (NMDAR). Ces récepteurs appartiennent à la famille des canaux ioniques activés par le glutamate et portent la transmission synaptique excitatrice rapide associée à l'apprentissage et à la mémoire. En combinant le balayage AzF et un test fonctionnel résistant à la lumière, nous avons pu apporter des éléments permettant de mieux comprendre la dynamique des interfaces NTD (N-Terminal Domain des NMDAR) ainsi qu’un nouveau mécanisme de régulation allostérique, améliorant notre compréhension de la base structurale du mécanisme d’activation et de modulation des récepteurs NMDA.Outre l'incorporation de l’Uaa photopontant AzF dans les récepteurs neuronaux pour détecter l'effet fonctionnel, AzF a été appliqué pour piéger des interactions faibles et transitoires entre protéines dans un transporteur d'acides aminés LAT3, impliqué dans le cancer de la prostate. Les techniques de dépistage ont été établies en appliquant un photo-cross-linker positionné dans la protéine pour examiner les interactions entre LAT3 et les interacteurs inconnus et fournir des indices d'identification des partenaires de liaison.Dans l'ensemble, ce travail dévoile de nouvelles informations sur la modulation allostérique de l'activité du récepteur NMDA et sur les interactions protéines-protéines.. Les résultats pourraient fournir de nouvelles informations structurales et fonctionnelles et guider le dépistage de composés thérapeutiques pour des maladies associées au dysfonctionnement de ces protéines membranaires. / Membrane proteins including receptors, channels and transporters play crucial roles in biological processes such as physiological signaling and cellular functions. Description of dynamic structures and functions of proteins is fundamental to understand most processes involving biological macromolecules. The incorporation of unnatural amino acids (Uaas) containing distinct physical or chemical properties into proteins provides a powerful tool to define the challenging protein structure and dynamics. These probes allow monitoring and real-time detection of receptor conformational changes and signaling complexes. The genetic code expansion approaches have enabled the incorporation of Uaas serving as probes into proteins with molecular precision. Heritable expansion of the genetic code may allow protein biology to be investigated in a system-wide manner.With this strategy, photocrosslinking Uaas have been used to study GPCR structure/function relationship, such as identifying GPCR-ligand binding or protein-protein interactions, detecting dynamic changes with spectroscopic Uaas and bioorthogonal labeling. Based on relatively well-established applications of Uaa in GPCRs, here, functional assays are combined with the site-specific genetic incorporation of a photo-sensitive Uaa, p-azido-L-phenylalanine (AzF) into other membrane proteins, to probe protein conformational changes and protein interactions. Unlike photo-sensitive ligands that enable proteins in response to light, the site-specific insertion of light-sensitive Uaas facilitates directly light-sensitive proteins. Dynamic aspects of allostery are more challenging to visualize than static structural models. A photochemical strategy was presented to characterize dynamic allostery of neuronal NMDA receptors (NMDARs), which belong to the ionotropic glutamate receptor channel family and mediate the fast excitatory synaptic transmission associated with learning and memory. By combining AzF scanning and a robust light-induced functional assay the dynamics of NMDAR N-terminal domain (NTD) interfaces and novel allosteric regulation mechanism were uncovered, improving our understanding of the structural basis of NMDAR gating and modulation mechanism.Besides incorporation of photo-cross-linker AzF into neuronal receptors to detect the functional effect, AzF was used to trap transient and weak protein-protein interactions in an amino acid transporter LAT3, which is critical in prostate cancer. Screening technique was established by applying genetically encoded photo-cross-linker to examine interactions between LAT3 and unknown interactors and provide clues to identify the binding partners.Overall, the work reveals new informations about the allosteric modulation of channel activity and proteins interactions. These light-sensitive proteins facilitated by site-specific insertion of light-sensitive Uaas enable profiling diversity of proteins. The results will provide novel structural and functional information and may guide screening of therapeutic compounds for diseases associated with malfunctioning of these membrane proteins.

http://www.pharmacol.usyd.edu.au/thesis This thesis is primarily concerned with a class of chemical compounds known as pyridazinediones, being 6-membered aromatic rings containing two adjacent nitrogen atoms (pyridazine), doubly substituted with oxygen. In particular, the work focuses on pyridazine-3,6-diones, derivatives of maleic hydrazide (1). Understanding of the chemistry of these compounds is extended, using theoretical and synthetic techniques. This thesis is also concerned with two very important classes of receptors which bind amino acids in the brain: firstly, the inhibitory GABA receptor, which binds g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (2) in vivo, and for which muscimol (3) is an agonist of the GABAA subclass; secondly, Excitatory Amino Acid (EAA) receptors, which bind glutamate (4) in vivo, and in particular the AMPA subclass, for which (S)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)propionic acid (AMPA) (5) is an agonist. The connection between pyridazinediones and amino acid receptors is the design, synthesis, and evaluation of structures based on pyridazinediones as potential GABA and EAA receptor ligands. Techniques of theoretical chemistry, molecular modelling, synthetic chemistry, and in vitro pharmacology are used to explore pyridazine-3,6-dione derivatives as ligands.

<p>The use of positron-emitting tracers has been extended beyond tomographic facilities in the last few years, giving rise to a general positron-emitting tracing technique. The methodological part of the present thesis involved the evaluation of the performance of storage phosphor (SP) plates, with tracers labeled with high-energy, short-lived, positron-emitting radionuclides, using homogenized tissue specimens and autoradiography with frozen brain sections. The SP plates showed superior sensitivity and a linear response over a wide radioactivity range. Autoradioradiography provided reliable results due to (a) adequate sensitivity for low radioactivity concentration, b) an excellent linear range, and (c) satisfactory resolution. Though equilibration time of receptor-ligand interaction was dependent upon section thickness, quantification was possib with thinner sections.</p><p>An initial finding using frozen section autoradiography of rat brain and spinal cord showed preferential binding of [¹¹C]4-NMPB, a muscarinic acetylcholine (mACh) receptor antagonist, to the M4 subtype of mACh receptors. Further work to ascertain this specificity, by use of binding studies on cell membranes from CHO-K1 cells expressing individual subtypes of human mACh receptors, suggested lack of subtype selectivity. With respect to the possible cliinical use in glutamatergic neuropathology, [¹¹C]cyano-dizocilpine, as a potential PET tracer for the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors, was studied. The <i>in vivo</i> visualization of specific binding could not be achieved, though <i>in vitro</i> binding demonstrated good specificity and preferential binding to the activated for of the NMDA receptors.</p><p>The use of the glucose analogue [¹⁸F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) to study glucose utilization was evaluated in experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI). A trauma-induced increased uptake of FDG was seen, whereas the uptake of [1-¹⁴C]glucose remained unchanged. This discrepancy might be due to the increased postraumatic affinity of FDG for the endothelial glucose transporter proteins and/or to the hexokinase enzyme. [¹¹C]Cyano-dizocilpine, [¹¹C]4-NMPB, and [¹¹C]flumazenil were utilized in autoradiography to evaluate changes in NMDA, mACh, and GABA_A receptors, espectively, in experimental TBI. Observations showed a global decrease in the binding potential BP) of (i) [¹¹C]cyano-dizocilpine acutely and 12 hrs after TBI, and (ii) of [¹¹C]4-NMPB at 12 hrs after TBI, and (iii) a decrease in the BP of [¹¹C]flumazenil in the cortex and hippocampus ipsilateral to the site of injury. The demonstrated changes in receptor binding after TBI are indicative of a widely dissipated effect of TBI on the particular neurotransmitter receptor systems as compared with what would be expected from FDG studies after TBI, i.e., a local disturbed neurotransmission.</p>

The use of positron-emitting tracers has been extended beyond tomographic facilities in the last few years, giving rise to a general positron-emitting tracing technique. The methodological part of the present thesis involved the evaluation of the performance of storage phosphor (SP) plates, with tracers labeled with high-energy, short-lived, positron-emitting radionuclides, using homogenized tissue specimens and autoradiography with frozen brain sections. The SP plates showed superior sensitivity and a linear response over a wide radioactivity range. Autoradioradiography provided reliable results due to (a) adequate sensitivity for low radioactivity concentration, b) an excellent linear range, and (c) satisfactory resolution. Though equilibration time of receptor-ligand interaction was dependent upon section thickness, quantification was possib with thinner sections. An initial finding using frozen section autoradiography of rat brain and spinal cord showed preferential binding of [11C]4-NMPB, a muscarinic acetylcholine (mACh) receptor antagonist, to the M4 subtype of mACh receptors. Further work to ascertain this specificity, by use of binding studies on cell membranes from CHO-K1 cells expressing individual subtypes of human mACh receptors, suggested lack of subtype selectivity. With respect to the possible cliinical use in glutamatergic neuropathology, [11C]cyano-dizocilpine, as a potential PET tracer for the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors, was studied. The in vivo visualization of specific binding could not be achieved, though in vitro binding demonstrated good specificity and preferential binding to the activated for of the NMDA receptors. The use of the glucose analogue [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) to study glucose utilization was evaluated in experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI). A trauma-induced increased uptake of FDG was seen, whereas the uptake of [1-14C]glucose remained unchanged. This discrepancy might be due to the increased postraumatic affinity of FDG for the endothelial glucose transporter proteins and/or to the hexokinase enzyme. [11C]Cyano-dizocilpine, [11C]4-NMPB, and [11C]flumazenil were utilized in autoradiography to evaluate changes in NMDA, mACh, and GABAA receptors, espectively, in experimental TBI. Observations showed a global decrease in the binding potential BP) of (i) [11C]cyano-dizocilpine acutely and 12 hrs after TBI, and (ii) of [11C]4-NMPB at 12 hrs after TBI, and (iii) a decrease in the BP of [11C]flumazenil in the cortex and hippocampus ipsilateral to the site of injury. The demonstrated changes in receptor binding after TBI are indicative of a widely dissipated effect of TBI on the particular neurotransmitter receptor systems as compared with what would be expected from FDG studies after TBI, i.e., a local disturbed neurotransmission.

The contamination of seafood with methylmercury (MeHg) is a global health issue, as MeHg is a well known neurotoxin. Since dietary nutrients may interact with MeHg toxicity, and oxidative stress is one of the primary mechanisms underlying MeHg neurotoxicity, we characterized dietary antioxidant-MeHg interactions. Firstly, we used an ethnobotanical study to confirm the antioxidant activity of Northern Labrador Tea, Rhododendron tomentosum ssp. subarcticum (Tea), for the Canadian Inuit, a population with elevated MeHg exposure. Secondly, we determined the ability of Tea to ameliorate MeHg-induced toxicity in a rat perinatal exposure study. MeHg exposure (2 mg/KgBW/d) was associated with perturbed development and behaviour, elevated brain N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, and serum lipid peroxidation. Surprisingly, Tea co-exposure (100 mg/KgBW/d) modulated MeHg’s effects on brain NMDA-R levels and lipid peroxidation, but also increased mercury serum concentrations. Thirdly, using a toxicogenomics approach we determined that MeHg exposure caused the down-regulation of Nr4a2 and its protein product Nurr1. These novel MeHg targets are implicated in developmental learning functions and were corrected with MeHg + Tea co-exposure. Lastly, we conducted a risk assessment survey and cross-sectional dietary epidemiology study in Costa Rica to further investigate dietary nutrient-MeHg interactions. Costa Rica is a Central American country with multiple sources of Hg and a high per capital fish consumption. Here, 5 of the 14 populations we studied exceeded the recommended MeHg provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) of 0.2 µg/KgBW/d. In Heredia the pTDI was exceeded by 34% of woman participants, primarily associated with canned tuna consumption. Interestingly, we detected that Hg body burden was significantly reduced by the consumption of antioxidant-rich dietary items. Considering our collective results, we hypothesized that MeHg toxicokinetics may be altered by dietary nutrients at the site of intestinal absorption from the disruption of gut flora, or at the site of cellular demethylation in tissues from the improvement of cellular redox state. The interaction of dietary nutrients on MeHg outcomes has a large impact on risk assessment and may provide a public health approach for managing the risk associated with MeHg exposure without reducing local fish consumption.

Anoxia is an environmental stress that few air-breathing vertebrates can tolerate for more than a few minutes before extensive neurodegeneration occurs. Some facultative anaerobes, including the freshwater western painted turtle Chrysemys picta bellii, are able to coordinately reduce ATP demand to match reduced ATP availability during anoxia, and thus tolerate prolonged insults without apparent detriment. To reduce metabolic rate, turtle neurons undergo channel arrest and spike arrest to decrease membrane ion permeability and neuronal electrical excitability, respectively. However, although these adaptations have been documented in turtle brain, the mechanisms underlying channel and spike arrest are poorly understood. The aim of my research was to elucidate the cellular mechanisms that underlie channel and spike arrest and the neuroprotection they confer on the anoxic turtle brain. Using electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging techniques, I demonstrate for the first time that: 1) the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) undergoes anoxia-mediated channel arrest; 2) delta opioid receptors (DORs), and 3) mild mitochondrial uncoupling via mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channels result in an increase in cytosolic calcium concentration and subsequent channel arrest of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, preventing excitotoxic calcium entry, and 4) reducing nitric oxide (NO) production; 5) the cellular concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) decreases with anoxia and ROS bursts do not occur during reoxygenation; and 6) spike arrest occurs in the anoxic turtle cortex, and that this is regulated by increased neuronal conductance to chloride and potassium ions due to activation of γ–amino-butyric acid receptors (GABAA and GABAB respectively), which create an inhibitory electrical shunt to dampen neuronal excitation during anoxia. These mechanisms are individually critical since blockade of DORs or GABA receptors induce excitotoxic cell death in anoxic turtle neurons. Together, spike and channel arrest significantly reduce neuronal excitability and individually provide key contributions to the turtle’s long-term neuronal survival during anoxia. Since the turtle is the most anoxia-tolerant air-breathing vertebrate identified, these results suggest that multiple mechanisms of metabolic suppression acting in concert are essential to maximizing anoxia-tolerance.