In this study we tested whether the prevalence or synaptic distribution of NMDA receptor subunits would be altered in the brain of the MeCP2-null mouse model of Rett syndrome. Detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) and post-synaptic densities (PSDs) were isolated from the synaptic membranes treated with TritonX-100, and resolved by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Immunoblot analysis of the resulting density gradient fractions revealed that the relative distribution of the different NMDA receptor subunits between the DRM fractions, soluble fractions, and insoluble postsynaptic density fractions was preserved in the MeCP2-null brain. However, analysis of the overall NMDA receptor subunit prevalence within these fractions revealed a significant decrease in the expression of the NR1 and NR2A subunits, but not the NR2B subunit, in the MeCP2-null brain. The preservation of distribution of NMDAR subunits to the synaptic membranes, together with the decrease in NR1 and NR2A prevalence, suggest an imbalance in equilibrium between the mature and the immature synapses in a mouse model of Rett syndrome.

In this study we tested whether the prevalence or synaptic distribution of NMDA receptor subunits would be altered in the brain of the MeCP2-null mouse model of Rett syndrome. Detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) and post-synaptic densities (PSDs) were isolated from the synaptic membranes treated with TritonX-100, and resolved by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Immunoblot analysis of the resulting density gradient fractions revealed that the relative distribution of the different NMDA receptor subunits between the DRM fractions, soluble fractions, and insoluble postsynaptic density fractions was preserved in the MeCP2-null brain. However, analysis of the overall NMDA receptor subunit prevalence within these fractions revealed a significant decrease in the expression of the NR1 and NR2A subunits, but not the NR2B subunit, in the MeCP2-null brain. The preservation of distribution of NMDAR subunits to the synaptic membranes, together with the decrease in NR1 and NR2A prevalence, suggest an imbalance in equilibrium between the mature and the immature synapses in a mouse model of Rett syndrome.

Anoxia is an environmental stress that few air-breathing vertebrates can tolerate for more than a few minutes before extensive neurodegeneration occurs. Some facultative anaerobes, including the freshwater western painted turtle Chrysemys picta bellii, are able to coordinately reduce ATP demand to match reduced ATP availability during anoxia, and thus tolerate prolonged insults without apparent detriment. To reduce metabolic rate, turtle neurons undergo channel arrest and spike arrest to decrease membrane ion permeability and neuronal electrical excitability, respectively. However, although these adaptations have been documented in turtle brain, the mechanisms underlying channel and spike arrest are poorly understood. The aim of my research was to elucidate the cellular mechanisms that underlie channel and spike arrest and the neuroprotection they confer on the anoxic turtle brain. Using electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging techniques, I demonstrate for the first time that: 1) the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) undergoes anoxia-mediated channel arrest; 2) delta opioid receptors (DORs), and 3) mild mitochondrial uncoupling via mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channels result in an increase in cytosolic calcium concentration and subsequent channel arrest of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, preventing excitotoxic calcium entry, and 4) reducing nitric oxide (NO) production; 5) the cellular concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) decreases with anoxia and ROS bursts do not occur during reoxygenation; and 6) spike arrest occurs in the anoxic turtle cortex, and that this is regulated by increased neuronal conductance to chloride and potassium ions due to activation of γ–amino-butyric acid receptors (GABAA and GABAB respectively), which create an inhibitory electrical shunt to dampen neuronal excitation during anoxia. These mechanisms are individually critical since blockade of DORs or GABA receptors induce excitotoxic cell death in anoxic turtle neurons. Together, spike and channel arrest significantly reduce neuronal excitability and individually provide key contributions to the turtle’s long-term neuronal survival during anoxia. Since the turtle is the most anoxia-tolerant air-breathing vertebrate identified, these results suggest that multiple mechanisms of metabolic suppression acting in concert are essential to maximizing anoxia-tolerance.

The contamination of seafood with methylmercury (MeHg) is a global health issue, as MeHg is a well known neurotoxin. Since dietary nutrients may interact with MeHg toxicity, and oxidative stress is one of the primary mechanisms underlying MeHg neurotoxicity, we characterized dietary antioxidant-MeHg interactions. Firstly, we used an ethnobotanical study to confirm the antioxidant activity of Northern Labrador Tea, Rhododendron tomentosum ssp. subarcticum (Tea), for the Canadian Inuit, a population with elevated MeHg exposure. Secondly, we determined the ability of Tea to ameliorate MeHg-induced toxicity in a rat perinatal exposure study. MeHg exposure (2 mg/KgBW/d) was associated with perturbed development and behaviour, elevated brain N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, and serum lipid peroxidation. Surprisingly, Tea co-exposure (100 mg/KgBW/d) modulated MeHg’s effects on brain NMDA-R levels and lipid peroxidation, but also increased mercury serum concentrations. Thirdly, using a toxicogenomics approach we determined that MeHg exposure caused the down-regulation of Nr4a2 and its protein product Nurr1. These novel MeHg targets are implicated in developmental learning functions and were corrected with MeHg + Tea co-exposure. Lastly, we conducted a risk assessment survey and cross-sectional dietary epidemiology study in Costa Rica to further investigate dietary nutrient-MeHg interactions. Costa Rica is a Central American country with multiple sources of Hg and a high per capital fish consumption. Here, 5 of the 14 populations we studied exceeded the recommended MeHg provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) of 0.2 µg/KgBW/d. In Heredia the pTDI was exceeded by 34% of woman participants, primarily associated with canned tuna consumption. Interestingly, we detected that Hg body burden was significantly reduced by the consumption of antioxidant-rich dietary items. Considering our collective results, we hypothesized that MeHg toxicokinetics may be altered by dietary nutrients at the site of intestinal absorption from the disruption of gut flora, or at the site of cellular demethylation in tissues from the improvement of cellular redox state. The interaction of dietary nutrients on MeHg outcomes has a large impact on risk assessment and may provide a public health approach for managing the risk associated with MeHg exposure without reducing local fish consumption.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) and depression (LTD) are important forms of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity believed to play a role in memory at the cellular level. It has previously been described that synthesis of new proteins is needed to maintain LTP longer than a few hours. Other reports argue that sufficient proteins for stable LTP are already available. The present study aims to examine the role of protein synthesis in LTD, the presumed mirror mechanism of LTP. Experiments were carried out in hippocampal slices from young (12-45 days) and old (12-18 weeks) Sprague-Dawley rats. Extracellular techniques were used to study synaptic responses in the Schaffer-collateral-commissural pathway. Plasticity was induced electrically by low frequency stimulation (2-3 trains at 1 Hz for 15 min) or chemically by brief exposure to certain glutamate receptor agonists (NMDA at 20 µM for 3 min or DHPG at 100 µM for 10 min). Whole slice protein synthesis was quantified by assessing 3H-leucine incorporation. Stable LTD (> 8 h) was be obtained by either electrical or chemical activation. Protein synthesis inhibitors anisomycin (40 uM) and cycloheximide (100 uM) both failed to influence the magnitude of LTD. Moreover, no age difference was found, in terms of stable LTD in both young and old rats under inhibition of protein synthesis. The potency of the inhibitors was found to be high, depressing synthesis down to a few percent. It is concluded that sufficient proteins for generating stable LTD are normally present in the brain, implying a large safety-margin for cellular memory.

Herpesviruses have co-speciated with several vertebrate and invertebrate animals throughout the history of evolution. In the immunocompetent human host, primary infection is usually benign, whereafter the virus is brought into life-long latency. Viral reactivation can however cause severe disease in immunocompromised, and rarely also in immunocompetent, patients. The overall aim of this thesis was to study the immunologic effects of cytomegalovirus (CMV) and herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) infection in neurocognitive disorders. CMV is known to promote T-cell differentiation towards a more effector-oriented phenotype, similar to what is seen in the elderly. We have addressed the frequency of CMV-specific CD8+ T-cells in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Furthermore, we have investigated whether AD patients present with a different CMV-specific immune profile, overall CD8 phenotype or inflammatory cytokine response to anti-CD3/CD28 beads, CMV pp65 and amyloid beta. Subjects with AD presented with a lower proportion of CMV-specific CD8+ T-cells compared to non-demented (ND) controls, but no differences in overall CD8 differentiation were seen. Overall, AD subjects presented with a more pro-inflammatory peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) phenotype. When PBMCs were challenged with CD3/CD28-stimulation, CMV seropositive AD subjects presented with more IFN-γ release than both CMV seronegative AD subjects and CMV seropositive ND controls. For effective screening of humoral herpesvirus immunity, both in research and in clinical practice, efficient immunoassays are needed. We have addressed the methodology of multiplex herpesvirus immunoassays and related bioinformatics and investigated antibody levels in AD patients and ND controls. Subjects with AD presented with lower levels of human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) IgG. However, there was no difference in HHV-6 DNA levels in PBMCs between the groups. Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a devastating disease, where antiviral treatment has greatly decreased mortality but not eliminated the associated long-term neurocognitive morbidity. We have investigated the correlation between N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor (NMDAR) autoimmunity and recovery of neurocognitive functions after HSE. Approximately one quarter of all HSE cases developed NMDAR autoantibodies within 3 months after onset of disease. Antibody development was associated with an impaired neurocognitive recovery during the two year follow-up and could become an important therapy guiding factor in the future.

The contamination of seafood with methylmercury (MeHg) is a global health issue, as MeHg is a well known neurotoxin. Since dietary nutrients may interact with MeHg toxicity, and oxidative stress is one of the primary mechanisms underlying MeHg neurotoxicity, we characterized dietary antioxidant-MeHg interactions. Firstly, we used an ethnobotanical study to confirm the antioxidant activity of Northern Labrador Tea, Rhododendron tomentosum ssp. subarcticum (Tea), for the Canadian Inuit, a population with elevated MeHg exposure. Secondly, we determined the ability of Tea to ameliorate MeHg-induced toxicity in a rat perinatal exposure study. MeHg exposure (2 mg/KgBW/d) was associated with perturbed development and behaviour, elevated brain N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, and serum lipid peroxidation. Surprisingly, Tea co-exposure (100 mg/KgBW/d) modulated MeHg’s effects on brain NMDA-R levels and lipid peroxidation, but also increased mercury serum concentrations. Thirdly, using a toxicogenomics approach we determined that MeHg exposure caused the down-regulation of Nr4a2 and its protein product Nurr1. These novel MeHg targets are implicated in developmental learning functions and were corrected with MeHg + Tea co-exposure. Lastly, we conducted a risk assessment survey and cross-sectional dietary epidemiology study in Costa Rica to further investigate dietary nutrient-MeHg interactions. Costa Rica is a Central American country with multiple sources of Hg and a high per capital fish consumption. Here, 5 of the 14 populations we studied exceeded the recommended MeHg provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) of 0.2 µg/KgBW/d. In Heredia the pTDI was exceeded by 34% of woman participants, primarily associated with canned tuna consumption. Interestingly, we detected that Hg body burden was significantly reduced by the consumption of antioxidant-rich dietary items. Considering our collective results, we hypothesized that MeHg toxicokinetics may be altered by dietary nutrients at the site of intestinal absorption from the disruption of gut flora, or at the site of cellular demethylation in tissues from the improvement of cellular redox state. The interaction of dietary nutrients on MeHg outcomes has a large impact on risk assessment and may provide a public health approach for managing the risk associated with MeHg exposure without reducing local fish consumption.

http://www.pharmacol.usyd.edu.au/thesis This thesis is primarily concerned with a class of chemical compounds known as pyridazinediones, being 6-membered aromatic rings containing two adjacent nitrogen atoms (pyridazine), doubly substituted with oxygen. In particular, the work focuses on pyridazine-3,6-diones, derivatives of maleic hydrazide (1). Understanding of the chemistry of these compounds is extended, using theoretical and synthetic techniques. This thesis is also concerned with two very important classes of receptors which bind amino acids in the brain: firstly, the inhibitory GABA receptor, which binds g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (2) in vivo, and for which muscimol (3) is an agonist of the GABAA subclass; secondly, Excitatory Amino Acid (EAA) receptors, which bind glutamate (4) in vivo, and in particular the AMPA subclass, for which (S)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)propionic acid (AMPA) (5) is an agonist. The connection between pyridazinediones and amino acid receptors is the design, synthesis, and evaluation of structures based on pyridazinediones as potential GABA and EAA receptor ligands. Techniques of theoretical chemistry, molecular modelling, synthetic chemistry, and in vitro pharmacology are used to explore pyridazine-3,6-dione derivatives as ligands.

Η ντοπαμινεργική νεύρωση είναι πολύ σημαντική για τις μακροχρόνιες αλλαγές της συναπτικής πλαστικότητας στον ιππόκαμπο και στον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό, καθώς και για την έκφραση των πρώιμων γονιδίων που σχετίζονται με τη μνήμη και τη μάθηση. Πολλές εργασίες έχουν δείξει ότι οι αλληλεπιδράσεις μεταξύ ντοπαμινεργικών και γλουταμινεργικών υποδοχέων είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντικές για τις γνωστικές λειτουργίες του ιππόκαμπου και του προμετωπιαίου φλοιού. Προκειμένου να μελετήσουμε το μοριακό υπόβαθρο των αλληλεπιδράσεων μεταξύ των ντοπαμινεργικών και γλουταμινεργικών υποδοχέων στο ιππόκαμπο και τον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό του επίμυος, εξετάσαμε «in vitro» την επίδραση της ενεργοποίησης των D1 υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης στο επίπεδο φωσφορυλίωσης των υπομονάδων των NMDA και AMPA υποδοχέων γλουταμινικού οξέος., καθώς στην φωσφορυλίωση/ ενεργοποίηση του σηματοδοτικού μονοπατιού της ERK1/2 κινάσης (Extracellular Regulated Kinase1/2) και της DARPP-32 (Dopamine-and cyclicAMP-Regulated PhosphoProtein-32). Επιπλέον, συγκρίναμε τις αλληλεπιδράσεις των D1/NMDA/AMPA υποδοχέων που παρατηρούνται στον ιππόκαμπο και στον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό με αυτές που εμφανίζονται στο ραβδωτό σώμα, στο οποίο η πυκνότητα των D1 υποδοχέων είναι η μέγιστη στον εγκέφαλο. Τα αποτελέσματά μας δείχνουν ότι η ενεργοποίηση των D1 υποδοχέων από τον ειδικό αγωνιστή τους SKF38393 (10 μΜ) στις τομές του ιππόκαμπου και του προμετωπιαίου φλοιού έχει ως αποτέλεσμα μια σημαντική αύξηση των επιπέδων φωσφορυλίωσης: α) της σερίνης-897 της NR1 υπομονάδας και της σερίνης-1303 της NR2B υπομονάδας του NMDA υποδοχέα, οι οποίες επάγουν τη διακίνηση των υποδοχέων στην μεμβρανική επιφάνεια (trafficking) και την ενίσχυση των ρευμάτων του ιοντικού διαύλου, αντίστοιχα, β) των σερινών-831 και -845 της GLUR1 υπομονάδας του AMPA υποδοχέα, οι οποίες ενισχύουν τα ρεύματα του ιοντικού διαύλου και αυξάνουν την πιθανότητα ανοίγματος του καναλιού, αντίστοιχα και γ) της ERK1/2 κινάσης, αλλά όχι της DARPP-32. Είναι ενδιαφέρον το γεγονός ότι η συνενεργοποίηση των D1 και NMDA υποδοχέων με ανενεργές δόσεις των ειδικών αγωνιστών τους SKF38393 (2 μΜ) και NMDA (5 μΜ), αντίστοιχα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα μια περαιτέρω αύξηση των επιπέδων φωσφορυλίωσης των υπομονάδων των NMDA και AMPA υποδοχέων, καθώς και της ERK1/2 κινάσης, αλλά όχι της DARPP-32. Οι παραπάνω επαγόμενες από την ενεργοποίηση των D1 υποδοχέων και την συνενεργοποίηση των D1/ NMDA υποδοχέων φωσφορυλιώσεις αναστέλλονται πλήρως από τον ειδικό αναστολέα της ενεργοποίησης της ERK1/2 κινάσης, SL327. Αντίθετα, στο ραβδωτό σώμα τα αποτελέσματα επιβεβαιώνουν ότι η επαγόμενη από τους D1 υποδοχείς φωσφορυλίωση των υπομονάδων των NMDA και AMPA υποδοχέων βασίζεται στο καλά περιγραμμένο σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι D1/PKA/DARPP-32. Συμπερασματικά, τα «in vitro» πειράματα δείχνουν στον ιππόκαμπο και στον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό να υφίσταται ισχυρή συνεργιστική αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ των D1 και των NMDA υποδοχέων, η οποία οδηγεί στην ενεργοποίηση του σηματοδοτικού μονοπατιού της ΕΡΚ1/2 κινάσης. Επιπλέον, η επαγόμενη από την διέγερση των D1 υποδοχέων και από τη συνδιέγερση των D1/ NMDA υποδοχέων φωσφορυλίωση των υπομονάδων των NMDA και AMΡΑ υποδοχέων φαίνεται να οφείλεται στο σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι της ERK1/2 κινάσης και πιθανώς αποτελεί το μοριακό υπόβαθρο της ενίσχυσης των ρευμάτων των NMDA και AMPA υποδοχέων από την ενεργοποίηση των D1 υποδοχέων. Προκειμένου να διερευνήσουμε εάν αυτή η συνεργιστική αλληλεπίδραση των D1/ NMDA υποδοχέων υφίσταται και «in vivo» και να εξετάσουμε περαιτέρω τη λειτουργική της σημασία, επιλέξαμε ένα φυσικό συμπεριφορικό τεστ, την εισαγωγή των πειραματόζωων σε «πρωτόγνωρο» περιβάλλον (ελεύθερη εξερεύνηση του χώρου). Η δοκιμασία αυτή είναι γνωστό ότι επάγει την αύξηση των επιπέδων ντοπαμίνης στον ιππόκαμπο και τον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό και κατ’επέκταση επάγει την ενεργοποίηση των D1 υποδοχέων. Τα αποτελέσματα μας δείχνουν ότι η εισαγωγή των επίμυων στο «καινούργιο» περιβάλλον επάγει στον ιππόκαμπο και στον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό: α) μια σημαντική αύξηση των επιπέδων φωσφορυλίωσης των υπομονάδων των NMDA και ΑΜPA υποδοχέων, καθώς και ισχυρή φωσφορυλίωση/ ενεργοποίηση του σηματοδοτικού μονοπατιού της ERK1/2 κινάσης. Τα φαινόμενα αυτά όπως δείξαμε μετά τη χορήγηση ειδικών ανταγωνιστών εξαρτώνται από τη σύγχρονη ενεργοποίηση των D1/ NMDA υποδοχέων και οφείλονται στο «νέο» ερέθισματα, δεδομένου ότι δεν εμφανίζονται μετά από δοκιμασία «εξοικείωσης» των επίμυων στο «καινούργιο» περιβάλλον, β) επιγεννετικές τροποποιήσεις (φωσφορυλίωση/ ακετυλίωση της ιστόνης Η3) και γ) αύξηση των πρωτεϊνικών επιπέδων έκφρασης των πρώιμων γονιδίων cFos και zif268 επιλεκτικά στη CA1 περιοχή του ιπποκάμπου, φαινόμενα τα οποία εξαρτώνται από την συνενεργοποίηση των D1/ NMDA υποδοχέων, καθώς και των μουσκαρινικών υποδοχέων ακετυλοχολίνης. Συμπερασματικά τα αποτελέσματα μας δείχνουν ότι: α) η φωσφορυλίωση των υπομονάδων των NMDA και AMPA υποδοχέων πιθανώς δρα ως «δείκτης του πρωτόγνωρου ερεθίσματος», δεδομένου ότι δεν εμφανίζονται μετά την «εξοικείωση» των επίμυων στο «καινούργιο» περιβάλλον, β) η ισχυρή ενεργοποίηση του σηματοδοτικού μονοπατιού της ERK1/2 κινάσης που επάγεται από το «νέο» ερέθισμα απαιτεί τη συνεργιστική αλληλεπίδραση των D1/ NMDA υποδοχέων και γ) η ενεργοποίηση του μονοπατιού μεταγωγής σήματος της ERK1/2 κινάσης οδηγεί σε επιγεννετικές αλλαγές και αύξηση της έκφρασης των πρώιμων γονιδίων cFos και zif268, φαινόμενα τα οποία απαιτούνται στη ρύθμιση της συναπτικής πλαστικότητας, καθώς και στις διαδικασίες της μνήμης και της μάθησης. / Dopaminergic innervation is critical for long term changes in synaptic efficacy in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as for learning-associated immediate-early gene expression. Many studies have demonstrated that the interactions between dopamine and glutamate receptors are essential for the prefrontal cortical (PFC) and hippocampal cognitive functions. In order to understand the molecular basis of dopamine/glutamate interactions in rat PFC and hippocampus, we investigated the effect of “in vitro” dopamine D1 receptor stimulation on glutamate NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits’ phosphorylation, as well as on ERK1/2 (Extracellular Regulated Kinase1/2) and DARPP-32 (Dopamine-and cyclicAMP-Regulated PhosphoProtein-32) phosphorylation/activation. Furthermore, we compared the D1/NMDA/AMPA receptor interactions seen in PFC and hippocampus with those appearing in striatum, in which the D1 receptors’ density is the highest within the mammalian brain. Our results showed that stimulation of D1 receptor by the specific agonist SKF38393 (10μM) in PFC and hippocampal slices significantly increased the phosphorylation state of: a) NR1ser897 and NR2Bser1303 subunits of NMDA receptor, which promotes the trafficking and enhances the ionic currents, respectively, b) of GLUR1(ser831 and ser845) subunit of AMPA receptor, which enhances the receptor currents and the open probability of the receptor channel and c) of ERK1/2, but not of DARPP-32. Interestingly, co-stimulation of D1 and NMDA receptors with an ineffective dose of SKF38393(2μM) and NMDA(5μM) respectively, elevated further the phosphorylation level of NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits, as well as of ERK1/2, but not of DARPP-32. The D1- and D1/NMDA-induced phosphorylations were totally inhibited by SL327 (specific ERK1/2 inhibitor). Conversely, in striatal slices our data confirm that the D1-mediated phosphorylation of NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits relies on D1/PKA/DARPP-32 signalling. In conclusion, in PFC and hippocampus: a) a strong synergistic interaction of D1 and NMDA receptors exists, which results in a significant ERK1/2 pathway activation, b) The D1 and the D1/NMDA receptor induced phosphorylation of NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits seems to rely on ERK1/2 signalling and could to some extend underlie the enhancement of NMDA and AMPA receptor currents mediated by D1 receptor activation. In order to investigate whether this synergistic interaction occurs also “in vivo” and to further examine its functional significance, we exposed the rats to a novel environment (open field exploration), which is known to evoke dopamine release in hippocampus and PFC. Our results showed that the “spatial” novelty stimulus induced in rat hippocampus and PFC: a) a significant increase in phosphorylation of NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits, as well as a robust phosphorylation/activation of ERK1/2 signalling, which are both dependent on the concomitant stimulation of D1/NMDA receptors and are both abolished by habituation, b) chromatin remodeling events (phosphorylation-acetylation of histone H3) and c) an increase in the immediate early genes cFos and zif268 expression in the CA1 region of hippocampus, which is dependent on the coactivation of D1/NMDA and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Our results indicate that: a) the phosphorylation of NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits could act as a ‘novelty detector’, since it is absent after habituation, b) the robust activation of ERK1/2 signalling elicited by “spatial” novelty, demands the synergistic interaction of D1/NMDA receptors and c) the activation of ERK1/2 pathway leads to chromatin remodeling events and expression of the immediate early genes cFos and zif268, which are required for the regulation of synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation.

Synaptic plasticity is thought to be integral to learning and memory. The two most common forms of plasticity are long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), both of which can be supported either by presynaptic changes in transmitter release probability (Pr), or by postsynaptic changes in AMPA receptor number. It is generally thought that the induction of LTP and LTD at Schaffer-collateral synapses in the hippocampus depends on the activation of NMDA receptors (GluN). Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that both increases and decreases in Pr can be induced under blockade of postsynaptic GluN receptors, suggesting that the activation of postsynaptic GluN receptors by glutamate is only a strict requirement for postsynaptic plasticity. In this thesis, I therefore re-examined the role of glutamate in presynaptic plasticity. I used single synapse imaging along with electrophysiological and pharmacological techniques to independently manipulate and monitor the levels of glutamatergic signalling during synaptic activity. I discovered that glutamate is inhibitory and unnecessary for the induction of LTP at the presynaptic locus. My findings support a novel model of presynaptic plasticity in which the net activity-dependent changes in Pr at an active presynaptic terminal is jointly determined by two opposing processes that can be simultaneously active: 1) postsynaptic depolarization, which, via the activation of L-type voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels, increases Pr by driving the synthesis and release of nitric oxide from neuronal dendrites and 2) glutamate release, which through the activation of presynaptic GluN receptors, decreases Pr. Computationally, this model suggests that plasticity functions to reduce prediction-errors that arise during synaptic activity, and, thereby offers a biologically plausible mechanism by which neuronal networks may optimize learning at the level of single synapses.