Universiẗat, Diss.--Frankfurt/M., 2000.

Würzburg, Univ., Diss., 2009. / Zsfassung in engl. Sprache.

Universiẗat, Diss., 2008--Frankfurt (Main).

Disrupted in Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) is a well supported risk factor for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major recurrent depression. DISC1 is a multifunctional multicompartmentalised scaffold protein with essential roles in neuronal proliferation, differentiation, migration and integration. DISC1 also modulates pathways of vital importance for neuronal signalling and plasticity. One of the major hypotheses for the cause of psychiatric illness is N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor hypofunction. It was observed that NMDA receptor antagonists can induce symptoms of schizophrenia in unaffected individuals, and exacerbate symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. Recent work in our laboratory showed that DISC1 complexes with NMDA receptors within the cell body and at synapse of neurons. Here I studied whether DISC1, or DISC1 missense variants, affect the trafficking of NMDA receptors. This was done by quantifying surface NMDA receptor expression in the presence of DISC1 or variant DISC1. I found that one common variant, 607F, causes a significant reduction in surface expressed NMDA receptors. I went on to show that DISC1 reduces the number of internalised receptors associating with early RAB5-containing endosomes. This indicates that DISC1 may be involved in the trafficking and recycling of NMDA receptors, a process that may be affected by the missense DISC1 variant 607F. Further to this I studied the effects on NMDA receptor trafficking of DISC1 pathway partners Nuclear Distribution Element 1 (NDE1) and Trafficking-protein kinesin binding 1 (TRAK1), both regulators of neuronal intracellular trafficking. Phosphorylation of NDE1 at T131 has been shown to be modulated by DISC1. Using phospho-mimic and phospho-dead NDE1 expression constructs I observed a significant reduction in the surface-expressed NMDA receptors in cells expressing the phospho-mimic form of NDE1. NDE1 may therefore be involved in the trafficking of NMDA receptors, and this role may be modulated by phosphorylation of NDE1. Finally, TRAK1 was shown to associate robustly with the GluN2B subunit, and to decrease the surface expression of NMDA receptors, most likely by sequestering them. The TRAK1-induced GluN2B sequestration may be an artefact, but the association of the trafficking molecule TRAK1 with this subunit may point towards a role in NMDA receptor trafficking. These proteins have been shown to associate with each other and may form a complex in order to traffic NMDA receptors. Disruption of this complex by defective DISC1 expression may affect NMDA receptor trafficking. In the brain this could conceivably contribute to NMDA receptor hypofunction and the development of psychiatric illness.

The sigma-1 receptors (σ-1Rs) are endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident proteins shown to have chaperone-like functions, and are widely distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS). They reside at a specialized membrane called mitochondria- associated ER-membrane (MAM) and can modulate numerous voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels. One of these channels is the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), and σ-1R ligands are able to enhance the potentiation of NMDARs, but the mechanism involved remains poorly understood. Using various biochemical techniques, we show that 90 min following an i.p. injection of σ-1R agonists ((+)-SKF 10,047 (SKF), (+)- Pentazocine (PTZ), or PRE-084 (PRE), there is an increase in the expression of GluN2- containing NMDARs in the rat hippocampus. These results suggest that σ-1R activation is able to enhance NMDAR function by modulating protein expression levels both in the cytosol and on the cell surface. This suggests that σ-1Rs could be excellent therapeutic targets for many neurological disorders, and for the development of novel antipsychotics.

Sigma-1 receptors (σ-1Rs) are chaperone-like proteins that are broadly distributed throughout the central nervous system and in other tissues. They have been implicated in several physiological and pathological processes, primarily by their ability to modulate certain voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels. Growing evidence suggests that σ-1Rs regulate the functions of ion channels, such as voltage-gated K+ 1.2 (Kv 1.2) and the human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene (hERG) ion channels, by modulating their expression, trafficking, and targeting. While it is well documented that σ-1Rs enhance the function of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), the mechanisms of this enhancement remain poorly understood. Using biochemical methods, we show that 90 minutes after intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of σ-1R agonists such as (+)-SKF 10,047 (SKF) or (+)-Pentazocine (PTZ) (2 mg/kg), there is an increase in the expression of GluN2 subunits of NMDARs and postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95) in the rat hippocampus. Following activation of σ-1Rs, co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) experiments reveal an increased interaction between σ-1Rs and NMDAR subunits; sucrose gradient centrifugation demonstrates an increase in the protein levels of GluN2 subunits in vesicular compartment; and biotinylation shows an increase in the surface levels of GluN2A-containing NMDARs. Taken together, our results suggest σ-1Rs may enhance NMDARs function by increasing their expression, trafficking, and surface levels. This σ-1R-mediated increase in NMDAR expression and surface levels might be involved in several physiological processes such as learning and memory. Our findings also suggest that σ-1Rs could form a potential target for designing novel antipsychotics.

No description available.

No description available.

NMDA glutamate receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel that mediates a major component of excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS). NMDA receptors are activated by simultaneous binding of two different agonists, glutamate and glycine/ D-serine1. With aging, glutamate concentration gets altered, giving rise to glutamate toxicity that contributes to age-related pathologies like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and dementia88,95. Some treatments for these conditions include NMDA receptor blockers like memantine130. However, when completely blocking the receptors, there is a restriction of the receptor's normal physiological function59. A different approach to regulate NMDAR receptors is thorough allosteric modulators that could allow cell type or circuit-specific modulation, due to widely distributed GluN2 expression, without global NMDAR overactivation59,65,122. In one study, we hypothesized that the compound CNS4 selectively modulates NMDA diheteromeric receptors (GluN2A, GluN2B, GuN2C, and GluN2C) based on (three) different glutamate concentrations. Electrophysiological recordings carried out on recombinant NMDA receptors expressed in xenopus oocytes revealed that 30μM and 100μM of CNS4 potentiated ionic currents for the GluN2C and GluN2D subunits with 0.3μM Glu/100μM Gly. However, when using 300μM Glu/100μM Gly, CNS4 inhibited the relative response in the GluN2D subunit and had no effect on the remaining subunits. CNS4 reduced the response to glutamate alone for GluN2A but increased it for GluN2B and did not appear to replace glutamate. Another set of electrophysiological recordings measuring current-voltage relationship was made in order to understand ion flow across the channel in the presence of CNS4. 100μM CNS4 numerically increased the ionic inward current through the channel pore with more positive membrane potential, reflected by a significant difference in reversal potential values, in the GluN2C and GluN2D subunits. CNS4 also exhibited a non-voltage dependent activity and it did not appear to compete with magnesium which naturally blocks the receptor. Finally, the effect of CNS4 on calcium uptake and cellular viability was study in neurons from primary rat brain culture. Cortial and striatal neurons were given excessive doses of synthetic agonist NMDA in order to hyperactivate native NMDAR. In the calcium assay, 100µM of CNS4 significantly increased calcium upatake when given with 300µM NMDA compared with NMDA alone in cortex and when given with 100µM and 300µM NMDA in striatum. In the MTS assay, CNS4 did not alter neuronal viability in either cortical or striatal neurons compared with NMDA alone. Also, when CNS4 was used in non treated neurons it did not alter neuronal viability. Findings from the primary brain culture let us conclude that CNS4 could facilitate calcium influx and possibly be non toxic for neurons. / Master of Science / NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors are predominately expressed in the central nervous system (CNS). These receptors are activated by glutamate and glycine/ D-serine1. With aging, glutamate concentration in the synapse gets altered giving rise to toxic environments for neurons that can contribute to age-related pathologies like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and dementia88,95. Some treatments of these conditions include the receptor blockers like memantine130. However, when completely blocking the receptors, there is a restriction of the receptor's normal physiological function59. A different approach to regulate NMDAR is through allosteric modulators that are compounds that modulate the receptor function without competing with endogenous agonists59,65,122. In this study, we hypothesized that the compound CNS4 selectively modulates NMDAR based on glutamate concentration. Electrophysiological recordings on stage four xenopus oocytes helped us to identify the dose-dependent activity of CNS4 and we found that 30 and 100μM of CNS4 selectively potentiates ionic currents for GluN2C and GluN2D subunits with 0.3μM Glu/100μM Gly but inhibited currents for only GluN2D with 300μM Glu/100μM Gly. Following this, a current-voltage plot was made to examine the channel activity of CNS4. We found a numerical increase of ionic inward current through the channel pore with more positive membrane potential values in the GluN2C and GluN2D subunits. Also, the effect of CNS4 on the ion current activity changed based on glutamate concentration, and CNS4 did not exhibit a voltage-dependent activity, which is a positive feature for compounds that target the receptor133. Finally, to better understand the effect of the compound CNS4 in primary neurons in a toxic environment, a rat brain neuronal culture was made. Increasing doses of NMDA with constant 100µM CNS4 increased cellular Ca2+ influx in a dose-dependent manner. Particularly, 100µM CNS4 with 300µM NMDA exhibited a significant increase in Ca2+ influx in both cortical and striatal neurons compared with 300µM NMDA alone. However, when used alone, 100µM CNS4 did not have an effect on the amount of Ca2+ influx. In addition, CNS4 plus NMDA did not increase viability compared to NMDA alone, and CNS4 alone did not proportionally reduce neuronal viability.

Les récepteurs NMDA (rNMDAs) sont des récepteurs-canaux membranaires activés par le glutamate, neurotransmetteur excitateur, et impliqués dans diverses formes de plasticité synaptique et pathologies. Ces hétérotétramères obligatoires opèrent en dimère-de-dimères, associant généralement deux sous-unités GluN1 et deux GluN2A-D. Déterminer l'arrangement spatial des sous-unités d'un rNMDA est essentiel à la compréhension des mécanismes régissant son fonctionnement et du rôle joué par les interfaces entre sous-unités et entre domaines, notamment N-terminal (NTD) et de liaison des agonistes (ABD). En combinant modélisation moléculaire, mutagenèse dirigée, biochimie sur cystéines et électrophysiologie, nous montrons que ces sous-unités s'arrangent selon un ordre alterné, avec les sous-unités identiques diamétralement opposées, et révélons l'existence d'une interface inter-dimère entre les ABDs GluN1. Nous avons aussi implémenté dans les ovocytes de Xénope une technique innovante consistant à incorporer un acide-aminé non-naturel photo-réactif (UAA) dans un rNMDA. Cette approche, basée sur l'expansion du code génétique, a permis de créer un rNMDA sensible à la lumière. L'introduction d'UAAs aux interfaces entre sous-unités GluN1 et GluN2, révèle le rôle joué par deux de ces interfaces: (1) entre les lobes supérieurs des NTDs, dans le contrôle "sous-unité spécifique" de l'activité et (2) entre les lobes inférieurs des ABDs, dans l'inhibition allostérique par le zinc. Ces travaux apportent des informations sur l'architecture moléculaire des rNMDAs et révèlent l'importance des réarrangements structuraux aux interfaces entre sous-unités voisines dans les fonctions du récepteur. / NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are excitatory neurotransmitter receptors that form glutamate-gated ion channels and are essential mediator of synaptic plasticity and brain disorders. NMDARs are obligatory heterotetramers usually composed of two GluN1 and two GluN2 (A-D) subunits. Whereas it's well established that NMDARs operate as dimers of dimers, subunit arrangement around the central pore is still debated. This issue is fundamental to understand the mechanisms which govern NMDAR functions and the role of the interfaces between subunits and between domains, including the N-terminal domain (NTD) and the agonist-binding domain (ABD). By combining computational modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, electrophysiology, and cysteine cross-linking, we show that, in a full-length heterotetrameric NMDAR, the subunit arrangement is alternated, with identical subunits facing each other, and identify a new interdimer interface between the two GluN1 ABDs. We have also used a new technique, for which we demonstrated the feasibility in Xenopus oocytes, which consists in incorporating photoreactive unnatural amino-acids (UAAs) at different positions in NMDAR subunits. This genetic code expansion enabled us to create photosensitive NMDARs and probe new interfaces between GluN1 and GluN2 and their role in (1) subunit-specific channel activity (interface between GluN1 and GluN2A-B NTDs upper lobes) and (2) zinc allosteric inhibition (interface between GluN1 and GluN2A ABDs lower lobes). Our studies provide new information about molecular architecture of NMDARs and demonstrate the importance of some structural rearrangements between subunit interfaces for the receptor functions.