[pt] Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar a vida-fadiga de dois ferros fundidos nodulares modificados metalurgicamente, sendo uma classe predominantemente ferrítica e outra.perlítica. Inicialmente, amostra dos dois ferros fundidos nodulares ferrítico e perlítico foram fundidas adotando-se moldação em areia na geometria padrão Y-block. Em seqüência, corpos de prova para ensaios mecânicos e de fadiga foram usinados das amostras ferríticas e perlíticas. Após os ensaios de tração e dureza, realizaram-se análises metalográficas qualitativas e quantitativas em ambos os materiais, com o intuito de se determinar suas características metalúrgicas, tais como contagem, distribuição e classe dos nódulos de grafita, bem como quantidade da matriz ferrítica e perlítica. Dando continuidade a etapa experimental, as curvas tensão versus número de ciclos para a falha do ferro fundido nodular ferrítico e do ferro fundido nodular perlítico foram levantadas por meio de ensaios de flexão rotativa. A vida útil em fadiga dos dois materiais foi relacionada com as suas características metalúrgicas. Quanto a resistência à fadiga, as amostras do ferro fundido nodular perlítico tiveram um melhor comportamento sob carregamento cíclico do que as amostras do ferro fundido nodular ferrítico. Tal comportamento superior foi atribuído a maior microdureza da matriz e a presença da estrutura olho-de-boi. Finalmente, as curvas experimentais tensão versus número de ciclos para a falha dos ferros fundidos nodulares ferrítico e perlítico foram modeladas pela equação de Coffin-Manson, que se mostrou eficiente no tratamento de dados experimentais da vida em fadiga de ambos os materiais. / [en] The objective of the present work was to evaluate the fatigue life of two nodular cast irons with metallurgical modifications and resulting in ferritic and perlitic different classes of material. Initially, samples of both materials were cast in sand moulds adopting the standard Y-block geometry. In the sequence, tensile and fatigue specimens were machined from the ferritic and perlitic samples. After the tensile and hardness tests, the microstructure of the both materials were analyzed by qualitative and quantitative metallography, aiming to characterize their metallurgical aspects as content, distribution and class of graphite nodules, as well as the contents of the ferritic and perlitic matrix. Following the metallurgical characterization, rolating bend fatigue tests were performed in order to estabilish the stress-life curves of the ferritic and perlitic nodular cast irons. Regarding the fatigue resistance, the specimens machined from the perlitic nodular sample showed a longer fatigue life than that related to the ferritic nodular specimens. The longer fatigue life of the perlitic nodular specimens was associated with a higher microhardness of the perlitic matrix and the preserve of the bull`s-eye structure. Finally, the experimental stress-life curves of the ferritic and perlitic nodular cast irons were modeled adopting the Coffin-Manson law, which was considered efficient in fitting experimental fatigue life data of both materials.

Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) is a ferrous material that was first fabricated in the second half of last century, therefore a relatively new material compared to steel, which has been used for different applications by mankind for some millennia now. ADI';s mechanical properties, such as its strength-to-weight ratio, which has proven to outperform that of forged steel by up to 10%, are very suitable for structural applications, such as connecting rods, crankshafts, and heavy farm machinery among others. The main goal of this work is to perform an analysis of the machinability of two ASTM grades of ADI, namely 2 and 3. The samples used in this work were cast and austempered according to ASTM standards for the production of grade 2 (G2) and grade 3 (G3) ADI. Characterization was accomplished through tensile and hardness tests, metallography and X-ray diffraction. Machinability was evaluated by analyzing tool life, cutting forces, surface finish and chip characteristics in turning operations. A quick-stop test was also performed. Tool life when machining G2 was 33% lower than G3, although the latter is a harder material. Abrasion and adhesion were the wear mechanisms observed through SEM images, whereas in other cast irons mainly abrasion is observed. Cutting forces measurements showed that the value of Kc1,1 decreased 19%, from 1448 to 1175N/mm2, for G2 as the depth of cut increased from 2 to 5mm at a cutting speed of 80m/min and 18%, from 1501 to 1236N/mm2, for G3. Surface roughness measurements proved that a smoother surface is obtained for both alloys at f = 0.10mm/rev when using an insert with nose radius 1.6mm instead of smaller radii. Both alloys presented similar surface quality. All chips observed were segmented.

Um novo ciclo de tratamento térmico denominado como têmpera e partição vem sendo desenvolvido em aços com elevados teores de silício, como rota para obtenção de estruturas com frações consideráveis de austenia retida. Essa rota de tratamento m térmico consiste em realizar uma têmpera temperaturas intermediárias entre Ms e Mf, seguido de um reaquecimento com manutenção em patamares isotérmicos por certos intervalos de tempo, objetivando estabilizar a austenita remanescente através da partição do carbono a partir da martensita supersaturada. No presente trabalho, duas ligas de ferros fundidos nodulares convencionais, com diferentes teores de silício e manganês, foram submetidas a ciclos de têmpera e partição. As amostras foram austenitizadas a 900°C por duas horas. Uma das ligas foi temperada em óleo a 160°C e a outra a 170°C por 2 minutos. Imediatamente após a têmpera as amostras foram reaquecidas em temperaturas entre 300 e 450°C por intervalos de tempo que variaram entre 2 e 180 minutos. A caracterização microestrutural foi realizada através de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e difração de raios x. A caracterização mecânica foi feita através de ensaios de energia absorvida ao impacto, dureza HRC e ensaios de tração. A caracterização microestrutural evidenciou que os ciclos de têmpera e partição são viáveis na obtenção de frações consideráveis de austenita retida nos ferros fundidos nodulares. A caracterização mecânica evidenciou que foi possível obter boas combinações de energia absorvida ao impacto, resistência à tração e alongamento. Em todas as condições testadas é possível perceber uma janela de processo bem definida caracterizada por valores crescentes das propriedades mecânicas nos primeiros minutos do ciclo de partição e que decrescem após certo intervalo de tempo. O conjunto de propriedades mecânicas obtidas através dessa rota de tratamentos térmicos indica que os ferros fundidos nodulares submetidos ao ciclo de têmpera e partição podem se constituir como alternativa tecnológica para aplicações comerciais nas quais os ferros fundidos nodulares austemperados já são materiais consolidados. / A new heat treatment cycle known as quenching and partitioning has been developed in commercial steel alloys containing silicon as a way to obtain structures with controlled fractions of retained austenite. This heat treatment cycle consists in performing a quenching in temperatures between Ms and Mf, followed by a reheating with isothermal holding by different time intervals. The aim of this cycle is to achieve the austenite stabilization by diffusion of carbon from the supersaturated plates of martensite. In this work, two conventional ductile cast iron alloys, with two different contents of silicon and manganese were heat-treated in quenching and partitioning cycle. The samples were austenitized at 900°C for two hours, followed by quenching in oil at 160° C and 170° C for two minutes. Immediately after quenching, the samples were reheated at temperatures between 300 and 450°C for time intervals between 2 and 180 minutes. The microstructural characterization was performed using electronic microscopy (SEM) and x-ray diffraction. The mechanical characterization was performed using impact tests, hardness and tensile strength tests. The microstructural characterization showed that the cycles of quenching and partitioning are viable to obtain considerable fractions of retained austenite in nodular cast by this heat treatment route. The mechanical characterization showed that it was possible to obtain good combinations of energy absorbed in the impact, tensile strength and elongation. In all tested conditions was possible to perceive a well-defined process window characterized by increasing values of mechanical properties in the first minutes of the partitioning step, and decrease after certain time intervals. The set of mechanical properties obtained by this route of heat treatments indicates that nodular cast iron subjected to tempering and partitioning cycle can be constituted as an alternative technology for commercial applications in which austempered ductile irons are already consolidated materials.

Estágio realizado na DuritCast e orientado pelo Eng.º Luís Sierra / Tese de mestrado integrado. Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais. Faculdade de Engenharia. Universidade do Porto. 2010

Contém anexos / Dissertação apresentada para obtenção do grau de Doutor em Engenharia Mecânica, na Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, sob a orientação do Professor Jorge Seabra

O uso de revestimentos na furação de metais tem o potencial de aumentar a resistência da ferramenta a temperaturas maiores, além de possibilitar a redução ou eliminação do uso de lubrificantes, reduzindo o impacto ambiental. No presente trabalho foram realizados revestimentos do tipo AlCrN e TiAlN, todos monocamada, via PVD em brocas de aço rápido AISI M2. As brocas foram testadas em ensaios de furação em cheio, a seco (sem lubrificação), no ferro fundido GGG 50 com matriz ferrítica. Foram realizados ensaios empregando-se como parâmetro de quantificação do desgaste, o valor de VBMax, para brocas revestidas e não revestidas. Os parâmetros de corte trabalhados foram: velocidade de corte e avanço. Foi avaliado o comprimento usinado, entre brocas com e sem revestimento. Ensaios de adesão dos revestimentos das brocas foram realizados, além da análise de desgaste e composição química dos materiais. Os resultados mostram a influência da velocidade de corte e avanço em brocas revestidas no desgaste de flanco máximo VBmáx. A presença do desgaste por adesão mostrou-se evidente neste trabalho, porém não contribuíndo para aumento significativo do desgaste de flanco VBMax. Os testes realizados mostram que as aplicações de revestimentos aumentam a vida, em proporções significativas, das ferramentas testadas. As análises de tipo de desgaste predominante durante os ensaios de furação mostram o desgaste por abrasão como responsável por boa parte do fim de vida das ferramentas, seguido de um pequeno índice de adesão, em virtude da matriz predominante no ferro fundido nodular. / The use of coatings on metals drilling has the potential to increase the strength of the tool at higher temperatures and, besides enables the reduction or elimination of the use of lubricants reducing the environmental impact. In the present paper were performed coatings like TiAlN and AlCrN, all monolayer through PVD over drills HSS AISI M2. The drills were tested in essays full drilling, dry (without lubrication), in the cast iron GGG 50 with ferritic matrix. Essays were performed employing as the wear parameter, the value of VBMax for coated and uncoated drill. The input parameters of the experiments were: cutting speed and feed rate, and was evaluated the length machined between coated and uncoated drills. Adhesion tests of the coatings of drills have been performed, besides the analysis of wear and chemical composition of the materials. The results showed the influence of cutting speed and feed on drills coated in maximum flank wear VBmáx. The presence of adhesive wear was evident in this work, but not contributing to a significant increase in flank wear VBMax. It was verified that the coatings applications increase the life of the tools tested, in significant proportions. The analysis of the predominant wear type during drilling tests show the abrasive wear is responsible for much of the end of tool life, followed by a low rate of adhesion by virtue of predominant matrix nodular cast iron.

O uso de revestimentos na furação de metais tem o potencial de aumentar a resistência da ferramenta a temperaturas maiores, além de possibilitar a redução ou eliminação do uso de lubrificantes, reduzindo o impacto ambiental. No presente trabalho foram realizados revestimentos do tipo AlCrN e TiAlN, todos monocamada, via PVD em brocas de aço rápido AISI M2. As brocas foram testadas em ensaios de furação em cheio, a seco (sem lubrificação), no ferro fundido GGG 50 com matriz ferrítica. Foram realizados ensaios empregando-se como parâmetro de quantificação do desgaste, o valor de VBMax, para brocas revestidas e não revestidas. Os parâmetros de corte trabalhados foram: velocidade de corte e avanço. Foi avaliado o comprimento usinado, entre brocas com e sem revestimento. Ensaios de adesão dos revestimentos das brocas foram realizados, além da análise de desgaste e composição química dos materiais. Os resultados mostram a influência da velocidade de corte e avanço em brocas revestidas no desgaste de flanco máximo VBmáx. A presença do desgaste por adesão mostrou-se evidente neste trabalho, porém não contribuíndo para aumento significativo do desgaste de flanco VBMax. Os testes realizados mostram que as aplicações de revestimentos aumentam a vida, em proporções significativas, das ferramentas testadas. As análises de tipo de desgaste predominante durante os ensaios de furação mostram o desgaste por abrasão como responsável por boa parte do fim de vida das ferramentas, seguido de um pequeno índice de adesão, em virtude da matriz predominante no ferro fundido nodular. / The use of coatings on metals drilling has the potential to increase the strength of the tool at higher temperatures and, besides enables the reduction or elimination of the use of lubricants reducing the environmental impact. In the present paper were performed coatings like TiAlN and AlCrN, all monolayer through PVD over drills HSS AISI M2. The drills were tested in essays full drilling, dry (without lubrication), in the cast iron GGG 50 with ferritic matrix. Essays were performed employing as the wear parameter, the value of VBMax for coated and uncoated drill. The input parameters of the experiments were: cutting speed and feed rate, and was evaluated the length machined between coated and uncoated drills. Adhesion tests of the coatings of drills have been performed, besides the analysis of wear and chemical composition of the materials. The results showed the influence of cutting speed and feed on drills coated in maximum flank wear VBmáx. The presence of adhesive wear was evident in this work, but not contributing to a significant increase in flank wear VBMax. It was verified that the coatings applications increase the life of the tools tested, in significant proportions. The analysis of the predominant wear type during drilling tests show the abrasive wear is responsible for much of the end of tool life, followed by a low rate of adhesion by virtue of predominant matrix nodular cast iron.

Um novo ciclo de tratamento térmico denominado como têmpera e partição vem sendo desenvolvido em aços com elevados teores de silício, como rota para obtenção de estruturas com frações consideráveis de austenia retida. Essa rota de tratamento m térmico consiste em realizar uma têmpera temperaturas intermediárias entre Ms e Mf, seguido de um reaquecimento com manutenção em patamares isotérmicos por certos intervalos de tempo, objetivando estabilizar a austenita remanescente através da partição do carbono a partir da martensita supersaturada. No presente trabalho, duas ligas de ferros fundidos nodulares convencionais, com diferentes teores de silício e manganês, foram submetidas a ciclos de têmpera e partição. As amostras foram austenitizadas a 900°C por duas horas. Uma das ligas foi temperada em óleo a 160°C e a outra a 170°C por 2 minutos. Imediatamente após a têmpera as amostras foram reaquecidas em temperaturas entre 300 e 450°C por intervalos de tempo que variaram entre 2 e 180 minutos. A caracterização microestrutural foi realizada através de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e difração de raios x. A caracterização mecânica foi feita através de ensaios de energia absorvida ao impacto, dureza HRC e ensaios de tração. A caracterização microestrutural evidenciou que os ciclos de têmpera e partição são viáveis na obtenção de frações consideráveis de austenita retida nos ferros fundidos nodulares. A caracterização mecânica evidenciou que foi possível obter boas combinações de energia absorvida ao impacto, resistência à tração e alongamento. Em todas as condições testadas é possível perceber uma janela de processo bem definida caracterizada por valores crescentes das propriedades mecânicas nos primeiros minutos do ciclo de partição e que decrescem após certo intervalo de tempo. O conjunto de propriedades mecânicas obtidas através dessa rota de tratamentos térmicos indica que os ferros fundidos nodulares submetidos ao ciclo de têmpera e partição podem se constituir como alternativa tecnológica para aplicações comerciais nas quais os ferros fundidos nodulares austemperados já são materiais consolidados. / A new heat treatment cycle known as quenching and partitioning has been developed in commercial steel alloys containing silicon as a way to obtain structures with controlled fractions of retained austenite. This heat treatment cycle consists in performing a quenching in temperatures between Ms and Mf, followed by a reheating with isothermal holding by different time intervals. The aim of this cycle is to achieve the austenite stabilization by diffusion of carbon from the supersaturated plates of martensite. In this work, two conventional ductile cast iron alloys, with two different contents of silicon and manganese were heat-treated in quenching and partitioning cycle. The samples were austenitized at 900°C for two hours, followed by quenching in oil at 160° C and 170° C for two minutes. Immediately after quenching, the samples were reheated at temperatures between 300 and 450°C for time intervals between 2 and 180 minutes. The microstructural characterization was performed using electronic microscopy (SEM) and x-ray diffraction. The mechanical characterization was performed using impact tests, hardness and tensile strength tests. The microstructural characterization showed that the cycles of quenching and partitioning are viable to obtain considerable fractions of retained austenite in nodular cast by this heat treatment route. The mechanical characterization showed that it was possible to obtain good combinations of energy absorbed in the impact, tensile strength and elongation. In all tested conditions was possible to perceive a well-defined process window characterized by increasing values of mechanical properties in the first minutes of the partitioning step, and decrease after certain time intervals. The set of mechanical properties obtained by this route of heat treatments indicates that nodular cast iron subjected to tempering and partitioning cycle can be constituted as an alternative technology for commercial applications in which austempered ductile irons are already consolidated materials.

O uso de revestimentos na furação de metais tem o potencial de aumentar a resistência da ferramenta a temperaturas maiores, além de possibilitar a redução ou eliminação do uso de lubrificantes, reduzindo o impacto ambiental. No presente trabalho foram realizados revestimentos do tipo AlCrN e TiAlN, todos monocamada, via PVD em brocas de aço rápido AISI M2. As brocas foram testadas em ensaios de furação em cheio, a seco (sem lubrificação), no ferro fundido GGG 50 com matriz ferrítica. Foram realizados ensaios empregando-se como parâmetro de quantificação do desgaste, o valor de VBMax, para brocas revestidas e não revestidas. Os parâmetros de corte trabalhados foram: velocidade de corte e avanço. Foi avaliado o comprimento usinado, entre brocas com e sem revestimento. Ensaios de adesão dos revestimentos das brocas foram realizados, além da análise de desgaste e composição química dos materiais. Os resultados mostram a influência da velocidade de corte e avanço em brocas revestidas no desgaste de flanco máximo VBmáx. A presença do desgaste por adesão mostrou-se evidente neste trabalho, porém não contribuíndo para aumento significativo do desgaste de flanco VBMax. Os testes realizados mostram que as aplicações de revestimentos aumentam a vida, em proporções significativas, das ferramentas testadas. As análises de tipo de desgaste predominante durante os ensaios de furação mostram o desgaste por abrasão como responsável por boa parte do fim de vida das ferramentas, seguido de um pequeno índice de adesão, em virtude da matriz predominante no ferro fundido nodular. / The use of coatings on metals drilling has the potential to increase the strength of the tool at higher temperatures and, besides enables the reduction or elimination of the use of lubricants reducing the environmental impact. In the present paper were performed coatings like TiAlN and AlCrN, all monolayer through PVD over drills HSS AISI M2. The drills were tested in essays full drilling, dry (without lubrication), in the cast iron GGG 50 with ferritic matrix. Essays were performed employing as the wear parameter, the value of VBMax for coated and uncoated drill. The input parameters of the experiments were: cutting speed and feed rate, and was evaluated the length machined between coated and uncoated drills. Adhesion tests of the coatings of drills have been performed, besides the analysis of wear and chemical composition of the materials. The results showed the influence of cutting speed and feed on drills coated in maximum flank wear VBmáx. The presence of adhesive wear was evident in this work, but not contributing to a significant increase in flank wear VBMax. It was verified that the coatings applications increase the life of the tools tested, in significant proportions. The analysis of the predominant wear type during drilling tests show the abrasive wear is responsible for much of the end of tool life, followed by a low rate of adhesion by virtue of predominant matrix nodular cast iron.

Nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin's lymphoma (NLPHL) is a rare and unique subtype of Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL), accounting for approximately 5% of HL. On histology, NLPHL presents with “popcorn cells” composed of lymphocytic and histiocytic cells that express CD20 and CD45, unlike the pathognomonic Reed-Sternberg cells in classic HL (cHL) that express CD15 and CD30. Such differences in histopathology may require alternative treatment approaches. We present a rare case of NLPHL with atypical features at presentation with excellent response to treatment regimen used in Non Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (NHL). A 36-year-old male presented with acute onset back pain. He also noted multiple gradually enlarging lumps in his neck, axilla, and anterior chest wall for a few months. He mentioned significant constitutional symptoms including fatigue, weight loss, and drenching night sweats. No evidence of end-organ damage was present, except significant hypercalcemia suggestive of hypercalcemia of malignancy. An excisional biopsy of his axillary lymph node confirmed the diagnosis of NLPHL with immuno-stains that were positive for CD20, CD45 and negative for CD15 and CD30. PET scan demonstrated extensive tumor burden in the skeletal system, including the sternum, and multi-stationary lymphadenopathy. Splenomegaly with lymphomatous infiltration was also present. He was assigned stage IV based on the Ann Arbor staging system. R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone) was initiated with a goal of 6 cycles, differing from ABVD (adriamycin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine) regimen that is used for cHL. Interval PET scan post 4 cycles of R-CHOP showed no evidence of residual disease. PET scan after 6 cycles demonstrated a complete response (CR), including resolution of hypermetabolic uptake in the spleen, lymph nodes and bones. NLPHL is often considered indolent in clinical courses but with a tendency for multiple late relapses compared to cHL. It still maintains a favorable prognosis. In contrast to cHL, NLPHL less frequently presents with constitutional symptoms, increased tumor burden, or at an advanced stage, which is associated with a worse prognosis. Our patient had multiple features that are unusual in NLPHL such as hypercalcemia, extensive bony involvement with hypermetabolic lytic lesions and significant constitutional symptoms. The clinical conundrum with this rare subtype is whether to treat with HL vs NHL regimens. Literature and the guidelines recommend a conservative approach for low stage NLPHL with observation vs radiation vs single agent rituximab (used in NHL!). Advanced stages require multi-agent regimens ranging from one end of the spectrum with ABVD (used in cHL) to the other end with R-CHOP and its variants (used in NHL). Our patient with a rare subtype of HL had a very unusual and aggressive presentation with CR to R-CHOP demonstrating that rituximab based regimens should be the mainstay of treatment.