The North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) in Turkey is a major continental strike-slip fault, 1200 km long and with a current slip rate of 25 mm/yr. Historical records show that the NAFZ is capable of producing high-magnitude earthquakes, activating different segments of the fault in a westward progression. Currently, the NAFZ poses a major seismic hazard for the city of Istanbul, which is situated close to one of the two strands into which the fault splays in northwestern Turkey. Understanding of fault zone structure and properties at depth is essential to constrain where deformation occurs within the lithosphere and how strain localises with depth. In fact, geodynamic models explaining surface deformation require knowledge of the width and depth extent of the fault zone in both the crust and upper mantle. In this framework, this thesis aims to provide better constraints on fault zone geometry within the lithosphere. To achieve this objective P and S wave teleseismic tomography have been applied to the data recorded by a dense array of broadband seismic stations (DANA, Dense Array for Northern Anatolia); through teleseismic tomography it was possible to image the NAFZ structure in both the crust and uppermost mantle. In addition, joint inversion i of P-wave teleseismic data and local earthquake data collected using the same array provided a greatly improved resolution within the upper 20 km of the crust. Results from this work highlighted the presence of a shear zone associated to the northern branch of the NAFZ in the study area. The fault zone appears to be 15 km wide within the upper crust and narrows to < 10 km within the lower crust and to Moho depth. In the uppermost mantle its width is constrained to be 30 to 50 km.

The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) is one of the world&rsquo / s largest active continental strikeslip faults, and forms the northern margin of the Anatolian plate. Although its geologic and geomorphologic features are well defined, crustal deformation and associated seismicity around central segment of the NAF is relatively less-known. In this study, we analyzed locations and focal mechanisms of 172 events with magnitude &ge / 3, which are recorded by 39 broadband seismic stations deployed by the North Anatolian Passive Seismic Experiment (2005-2008). Distribution of the events shows that the local seismicity in the area is widely distributed, suggesting a widespread continental deformation, particularly in the southern block. For the entire data set, P- and S- arrival times are picked and events are relocated using the HYPOCENTER program. Then, relocated events which have a good azimuthal coverage with a maximum gap of 120&deg / and at least 13 P- wave readings are selected and 1-D inversion algorithm, VELEST, is used to derive the 1-D seismic velocity model of the region. The final model with updated locations is later put together to the FOCMEC program, to obtain focal mechanisms solutions. In this step, an iterative scheme is applied by increasing the number of data errors. To obtain more unique solutions, first motions of P and SH v phases are used along with SH/P amplitude ratios. Resultant 109 well-constrained focal mechanisms later used to perform stress tensor inversion across the region. Our focal mechanisms suggest a dominant strike-slip deformation along two major fault sets in the region. In the east, E-W trending splays (Ezinepazari, Almus, and La&ccedil / in Kizilirmak) show right-lateral strike-slip motion similar to the NAF whereas in the west, N-S trending faults (Dodurga, Eldivan) show left lateral strike-slip motion. Overall, stress orientations are found as: maximum principal stress, &sigma / 1, is found to be subhorizontal striking NW-SE, the intermediate principle stress, &sigma / 2, is vertically orientated and the minimum principal stress, &sigma / 3, is found to be NE &ndash / SW striking, consistent with the strike-slip regime of the region.

This study aims to determine the chemical (anion-cation) and isotopic compositions (&amp / #948 / 18O-&amp / #948 / D-3H) of the geothermal waters along the North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) and highlight any possible seismicity-induced temporal variations during the course of two years (2002-2003) monitoring programme. The geothermal sites are alligned along a 800 km transect of the NAFZ and are, from west to east, Yalova, Efteni, Bolu, Mudurnu, Seben, KurSunlu, Hamam&ouml / z&uuml / , G&ouml / zlek and ReSadiye. The thermal waters of NAFZ are dominantly Na-HCO3, whereas the cold waters are dominantly Ca-HCO3 in character. The highest temperature (72.3&amp / #61616 / C) is recorded in Seben. The hot waters are slightly acidic to alkaline in character with pH values ranging between 5.92-7.97, while the cold waters are comparatively more alkaline with pH values between 6.50-8.83. Both hot and the cold waters are meteoric in origin. The hot waters have lower &amp / #948 / 18O-&amp / #948 / D and tritium values suggesting higher recharge altitudes for aquifers and longer residence times for waters, respectively, in the geothermal system (compared to the cold waters). Temporal variations are detected in both ionic and isotopic compositions of the cold and the hot waters, and these reflect seasonal variations for cold and seismicity-induced variations for hot waters. Although no major earthquakes (M&gt / 5) occurred along the NAFZ during the monitoring period, temporal variations recorded in Cl and 3H, and to a lesser extent in Ca and SO4 contents seem to correlate with seismicity along the NAFZ. In this respect, Yalova field deserves the particular attention since seismicity induced variations were better recorded in this field.

Dans cette thèse, nous présentons trois études concernant les interactions entre séismes et la phase de nucléation des forts tremblements de terre. La première partie de ce travail concerne le NO de la Turquie, où deux systèmes tectoniques sont présents : décrochement sur la Faille Nord Anatolienne et extension dans des essaims situés autour de la faille. Nous montrons que ces deux systèmes interagissent, mais répondent différemment à l'excitation du séisme d'Izmit (1999). Les calculs des changements de contraintes de Coulomb induits par le séisme d'Izmit indiquent que les évènements en décrochement répondent aux contraintes dynamiques, alors que les séismes en extension semblent contrôlés par la déformation statique de la croûte. Dans la seconde partie de cette thèse, nous analysons une importante séquence sismique qui s'est produite en 2008 en Grèce. Cette analyse a montré que les séismes en subduction ou en décrochement composant la séquence reflètent le mouvement du SO rigide de la Grèce vers le SSO accompagné du plongement de la plaque Africaine et du retrait vers le sud de la subduction. Cette première étape de déformation est suivie, quelques mois plus tard, de la déformation interne de la plaque Egée qui se manifeste par de l'extension N-S. Cette séquence sismique est le témoin de l'existence d'un couplage dynamique entre la subduction et le prolongement de la Faille Nord Anatolienne dans la région égéenne. Enfin, le but de la dernière partie de cette thèse a été d'apporter des éléments de réponse à la question : existe-t-il un phénomène observable par le biais de la sismicité qui précède de manière systématique les grands tremblements de terre? Pour cela nous avons étudié l'activité sismique précédant des séismes de M$geq 6.5$ dans des régions bien instrumentées (Japon, Cascades et NO des Etats-Unis). Nous montrons que la grande majorité des séismes interplaques est précédée d'une accélération de la sismicité, au contraire des séismes intraplaques. Nous mettons également en évidence une différence entre les séismes en décrochement et les séismes en subduction : les pré-chocs des séismes en subduction sont localisés dans une grande région, rendant un déclenchement en cascade des évènements et du choc principal impossible. / We present three studies about earthquake interactions and the nucleation phase of big earthquakes. The first part of this work deals with the northwestern Turkey, where two tectonic regimes exist, with the transform North Anatolian Fault and extension clusters around it. We show that these two systems interact, but respond differently to Izmit earthquake (1999) stimulation. Computations of the Coulomb stress changes induced by the Izmit earthquake indicate that strike-slip events respond to dynamic stresses, whereas the extension ones seem to be controlled by the static deformation of the crust. In the second part, we analyze a seismic sequence that occurred in 2008 in Greece. This analysis shows that subduction or strike-slip earthquakes of the sequence depict the overall motion of the southwestern Greece to the SSW, accompanied by the plunge and the southward retreat of the slab. This first deformation stage is followed, few months later, by the internal deformation of the Aegean plate, which occurs as N-S extension. This seismic sequence depicts the existence of dynamic coupling between the Hellenic subduction and the prolongation of the North Anatolian Fault. The aim of the last part was to shed some lights on the question: is there a systematic seismic phenomena preceding the occurrence of big earthquakes? To do that, we studied seismic activity preceding M$geq$6.5 earthquakes in some well-instrumented areas of the North Pacific. We show that most of the interplate earthquakes are preceded by an increase of the activity, unlike the intraplate ones. We also highlight a different behavior between strike-slip and subduction events: foreshocks of subduction earthquakes are located in a large area, preventing a cascade triggering.

Over the past century, a series of large (> 6.5) magnitude earthquakes have struck along the North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) in Turkey in a roughly East to West progression. The progression of this earthquake sequence began in 1939 with the Ms 8.0 earthquake near the town of Erzincan and continued westward, with two of the most recent ruptures occurring near the Sea of Marmara in 1999. The sequential nature of ruptures along this fault zone implies that there is a connection between the location of the previous rupture and that of the future rupture zones. This study focuses on understanding how previous rupture events and tectonic influences affect the stress regime of the NAFZ and how these stress changes affect the probability of future rupture along any unbroken segments of the fault zone using a two dimensional finite element modeling program. In this study, stress changes due to an earthquake are estimated using the slip history of the event, estimations of rock and fault properties along the fault zone (elastic parameters), and the far-field tectonic influence due to plate motions. Stress changes are not measured directly. The stress regime is then used to calculate the probability of rupture along another segment of the fault zone. This study found that when improper estimates of rock properties are utilized, the stress changes may be under- or over- estimated by as much as 350% or more. Because these calculated stress changes are used in probability calculations, the estimates of probability can be off by as much as 20%. A two dimensional model was built to reflect the interpreted geophysical and geological variations in elastic parameters and the 1939 through 1999 rupture sequence was modeled. The far-field tectonic influence due to plate motions contributed between 1 and 4 bars of stress to the unbroken segments of the fault zone while earthquake events transferred up to 50 bars of stress to the adjacent portions of the fault zone. The 1999 rupture events near Izmit and Düzce have increased the probability of rupture during the next ten years along faults in the Marmara Sea to 38% while decreasing the probability of rupture along the faults near the city of Bursa by ~6%. Large amounts of strain accumulation are interpreted along faults in the Marmara Sea, further compounding the case for a large rupture event occurring in that area in the future. / Ph. D.

Le but de cette thèse est centré sur la détection et la surveillance de la déformation de surface dans le nord-ouest de la Turquie, induite par une variété de phénomènes naturels (telles que l'activité tectonique, les glissements de terrain lents, etc.) et anthropiques (extraction des eaux souterraines, activités de construction, etc.), et sur l’analyse des mécanismes de déformation associés et de leurs conséquences pour l’environnement. Ce travail est basé sur le calcul de séries temporelles de déplacement du sol par interférométrie radar à synthèse d’ouverture (InSAR) afin d'analyser l'évolution des déplacements du sol, pour trois cas d’études associés à différents phénomènes géophysiques et processus sous-jacents. L’objectif de cette thèse est double : (1) révéler et quantifier les caractéristiques spatio-temporelles du glissement asismique le long de la rupture du séisme d’Izmit du 17 août 1999, et discuter de leur relation potentielle avec les propriétés de la faille (lithologie, géologie); (2) étudier la subsidence du sol dans des zones urbaines ou des zones exploitées par l'homme, induite par divers facteurs, et discuter des rôles relatifs de la tectonique, de la lithologie et des activités anthropiques dans ce mouvement du sol.Dans la première étude de cas, j’ai combiné des mesures InSAR, à partir d’images radar TerraSAR-X (bande X) et Sentinel-1 AB (bande C) acquises sur la période 2011-2017, à des mesures GPS en champ proche, effectuées tous les six mois à partir de 2014 jusqu'en 2016, ainsi qu’à des mesures de creepmeter, pour analyser le champ de vitesse en surface autour de la NAF, après le tremblement de terre d'Izmit de 1999. Les champs de vitesse moyenne horizontale InSAR révèlent que le taux de fluage (« creep ») sur le segment central de la rupture d'Izmit continue de décroître, plus de 19 ans après le séisme, ce qui concorde globalement avec les modèles de décroissance logarithmique des glissements post-sismiques de type « afterslip ». Le long de la section de la faille rompue à une vitesse « supershear » lors du séisme d'Izmit, le fluage se poursuit à une vitesse pouvant atteindre 8 mm / an. Un événement transitoire significatif, avec un fluage en accélération, est également détecté en décembre 2016 sur la série temporelle Sentinel-1, en accord avec les mesures d’un creepmeter installé près de la zone où la vitesse de fluage est maximum. Il est associé à un déplacement de surface total de 10 mm accumulé en un mois seulement.La deuxième cas d’étude porte sur l'identification et la mesure de la déformation du sol long-terme à Istanbul à partir d'une série InSAR couvrant près de 25 ans d'observations radar par satellite (1992-2017). Cette série temporelle InSAR a été calculée à partir d'images radar de plusieurs satellites (ERS-1, ERS-2, Envisat, Sentinel-1 A, B) afin d'étudier l'étendue spatiale et le taux de subsidence du sol dans la mégapole d'Istanbul.Dans le troisième cas d’étude, une série InSAR est calculée pour quantifier la subsidence de la plaine de Bursa (sud de la région de Marmara en Turquie), auparavant interprétée comme d’origine tectonique. Dans cette étude, StaMPS est utilisé pour traiter des séries d'images radar Sentinel 1 A-B acquises entre 2014 et 2017 le long d’orbites ascendantes et descendantse. Le champ de vitesse verticale obtenu après décomposition des champs de vitesse en ligne de visée sur deux traces complémentaires révèle que la plaine de Bursa s'affaisse à des vitesses allant jusqu'à 25 mm / an. A l’est, le signal de subsidence le plus important dans le bassin forme une ellipse allongée est-ouest et est limité par une plaine alluviale Quaternaire subsidant à environ 10 mm / an. Ces observations indiquent que l'accélération récente de la subsidence est principalement due aux activités anthropiques plutôt qu'aux mouvements tectoniques régionaux. / The aim of this thesis is centered on the detection and monitoring of surface deformation in northwest Turkey induced by a variety of natural (such as tectonic activity, slow moving-landslides, etc.) and anthropogenic (ground water extraction, construction activities, etc.) hazards and on the analysis of the related deformation mechanisms and their environmental consequences. In this work, I computed Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) time series to examine ground deformation evolution for three different case studies associated to different geophysical phenomena and underlying processes. The focus of this thesis is two-fold : (1) to reveal and monitor the spatio-temporal characteristics of aseismic slip along the August 17, 1999 Mw 7.4 Izmit earthquake rupture, and discuss its potential relationship with lithology and geology (2) to investigate ground subsidence in urban or human-exploited areas induced by various factors, and discuss the relative roles of tectonics, lithology and anthropogenic activities in such ground motion.In the first case-study, I combined InSAR measurements, based on X-band TerraSAR-X and C-band Sentinel-1 A-B radar images acquired over the period 2011-2017, with near field GPS measurements, performed every 6 months from 2014 to 2016, as well as creep meter measurements to examine the surface velocity field around the NAF after the 1999 Izmit earthquake. In this study, the Stanford Method for Persistent Scatterers InSAR package (StaMPS) was employed to process series of Sentinel 1 A-B (acquired along ascending and descending orbits) and TerraSAR-X (ascending orbits) radar images. The InSAR horizontal mean velocity fields reveal that the creep rate on the central segment of the 1999 Izmit fault rupture continues to decay, more than 19 years after the earthquake, in overall agreement with models of postseismic afterslip rate decaying logarithmically with time. Along the fault section that experienced a supershear velocity rupture during the Izmit earthquake, creep continues with a rate up to ~ 8 mm/yr. A significant transient event with accelerating creep is detected in December 2016 on the Sentinel-1 time series, consistent with creepmeter measurements, near the maximum creep rate location. It is associated with a total surface slip of 10 mm released in one month only. The second case study deals with the identification and measurement of secular ground deformation in Istanbul from a long-term InSAR time-series spanning almost 25 years of satellite radar observations (1992-2017). This InSAR time series was computed from radar images of multiple satellites (ERS-1, ERS-2, Envisat, Sentinel-1 A, B) in order to investigate the spatial extent and rate of ground subsidence in the megacity of Istanbul.In the third case study, InSAR time-series analysis is calculated for quantifying the subsidence of the Bursa Plain (southern Marmara region of Turkey), which has been interpreted as resulting from tectonic motions in the region. In this study, the StaMPS is employed to process series of Sentinel 1 A-B radar images acquired between 2014 and 2017 along both ascending and descending orbits. The vertical velocity field obtained after decomposition of line-of-sight velocity fields on the two tracks reveals that the Bursa plain is subsiding at rates up to 25 mm/yr. The most prominent subsidence signal in the basin forms an east-west elongated ellipse of deformation in the east, and is bounded by a Quaternary alluvial plain undergoing average vertical subsidence at ~10 mm/yr. The InSAR time series within the observation period is well correlated with changes in the depth of the ground water. These observations indicate that the recent acceleration of subsidence is mainly due to anthropogenic activities rather than tectonic motion.

Gemlik County is located in the Marmara Region (NW Turkey), which has been affected by destructive earthquakes sourced from North Anatolian Fault System throughout its history. The bulk of the settlement rests on alluvial deposits of the Gemlik pull-apart basin. So, it is vital to investigate the foundation soils in this basin and the response of them to earthquakes. Many earthquake codes were established by the authorities in different countries of the world to estimate the possible ground shaking and seismic loads which may act on buildings. In this study, Turkish Earthquake Code (TEC-1998) and Eurocode-8 (EN-1998) have been utilized. The analyses showed that EN-1998 results in more conservative estimates relative to TEC-1998, in terms of spectral ordinates. The source of difference between TEC-1998 and EN-1998 has been investigated and three possible reasons have been identified. The variation is probably due to the different seismic characteristics of Turkey and Europe, different soil amplification levels defined by the codes, and different soil classification procedures of the codes.

<p>Magnetic surveys are one of the principal geophysical methods employed to map the structure of basement rocks deeply buried below cover strata. In resource studies, aeromagnetic surveys are commonly acquired at regional scales (100-1000’s km2) while very few studies have attempted to resolve basement structures at site-scale (<10 >km2). In this study, high-resolution lake-based magnetic survey methods were evaluated for mapping of deeply-buried basement faults (Küçükçekmece Lagoon, Turkey; 6 km2) and a suspected meteorite impact crater (Charity Shoal, Lake Ontario; 9 km2). Total magnetic intensity (TMI) surveys were acquired using a single Overhauser magnetometer with 50-150 m line spacing. Interpretation of the magnetic data was aided by forward modelling of TMI data and depth to basement estimates using Euler and analytic signal methods. Total magnetic intensity (TMI) maps of Küçükçekmece Lagoon identify several north-northwest trending (340-350°) magnetic lineaments that are aligned with strike-slip faults mapped from offshore seismic data. The pattern of magnetic anomalies in the lagoon is consistent with extensional normal faulting of bedrock and lake sediments. Magnetic results from Charity Shoal reveal a large (>1400 nT) parabolic-shaped magnetic anomaly centered over the crater basin and an annular magnetic high (40-50 nT) corresponding with the basin rim. Modelling results exclude the origin of the CSS as a shallow glacial erosional or karst sinkhole feature and are most consistent with a pre-Paleozoic meteorite impact in the Precambrian basement.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

Plus de 70 % de la surface terrestre est recouverte par les mers et océans. Nombre de phénomènes tectoniques parmi les plus dévastateurs ont par ailleurs lieu en environnement océanique. On peut citer en exemple les zones de subduction, pouvant générer des mégaséismes associés à des tsunamis dévastateurs (Sumatra en 2004, Tohokuen 2011), mais aussi les failles décrochantes sous-marines. Dans de nombreux cas, les méthodes de géodésie spatiale ne permettent pas de discriminer entre un comportement bloqué ou asismique, les instruments étant situés trop loin de la zone potentiellement déformée par le processus tectonique. Il faut alors mettre au point de nouvelles techniques qui permettent de prolonger les réseaux d’observation classiques au large afin de cartographier la déformation sur l’intégralité de la zone. Cette thèse s’intéresse à deux méthodes de géodésie fond de mer permettant d’aider à l’évaluation du risque sismique. La première est la distancemétrie relative acoustique, avec comme zone d’application effective la mer de Marmara. Nos premiers résultats laissent supposer un comportement bloqué au niveau du segment de la faille nord-anatolienne immergé devant İstanbul. La seconde zone d’étude considérée est la subduction antillaise. L’échelle de travail nécessite une localisation des points observés dans un référentiel global. Nous étudions les phénomènes océaniques à considérer et détaillons une méthodologie dite GNSS/A (pour Acoustique), consistant en des interrogations acoustiques depuis une plateforme de surface précisément positionnée par GNSS, pour une future expérience de positionnement absolu au large de la Guadeloupe. / More than 70 % of the Earth surface is covered by seas and oceans. Several tectonic phenomena, among the most devastating, take place in ocean environment. For example, the subduction zones, which can generate mega-earthquakes associated with devastating tsunamis (Sumatra in 2004, Tōhoku in 2011), but also the underwater strike-slip faults. In many cases, methods of space geodesy cannot discriminate between a blocked or aseismic behavior, because the instruments are located too far from the area potentially deformed by the tectonic process. Thus, it is necessary to develop new techniques to extend conventional observation networks off-shore to map the deformation in the entire area. This thesis focuses on two seafloor geodesy methods, in order to assess the seismic risk evaluation. The first is the relative acoustic ranging, with an efective deployment of the Marmara Sea area. Our early results suggest a locked state at the segment of the North Anatolian fault of İstanbul. The second area considered is the Caribbean subduction. The working scale requires localization of the observed points in a global reference frame. We study ocean processes to consider, and detail a GNSS/A (Acoustic) methodology, consisting of acoustic interrogations from a precisely GNSS positioned surface platform, for a future absolute positioning experience of Guadeloupe.

Bolu-Ilgaz region was damaged by several large earthquakes in the last century and the structural damage was substantial especially after the 1944 and 1999 earthquakes. The objective of this study is to build the seismic source characterization model for the rupture zone of 1944 Bolu-Gerede earthquake and perform probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) in the region. One of the major improvements over the previous PSHA practices accomplished in this study is the development of advanced seismic source models in terms of source geometry and reoccurrence relations. Geometry of the linear fault segments are determined and incorporated with the help of available fault maps. Composite magnitude distribution model is used to properly represent the characteristic behavior of NAF without an additional background zone. Fault segments, rupture sources, rupture scenarios and fault rupture models are determined using the WG-2003 terminology. The Turkey-Adjusted NGAW1 (G&uuml / lerce et al., 2013) prediction models are employed for the first time on NAF system. The results of the study is presented in terms of hazard curves, deaggregation of the hazard and uniform hazard spectrum for four main locations in the region to provide basis for evaluation of the seismic design of special structures in the area. Hazard maps of the region for rock site conditions and for the proposed site characterization model are provided to allow the user perform site-specific hazard assessment for local site conditions and develop site-specific design spectrum. The results of the study will be useful to manage the future seismic hazard in the region.