Western Sahara has been in a state of political crisis since Spain granted the territory to Morocco and Mauritania in 1975. While Morocco has attempted to incorporate the region within its borders, the Polisario Front (Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro) has challenged Morocco's claims and proclaimed they are the voice of the indigenous Sahrawi people. Algeria, home to a majority of the Sahrawi refugees, continues to support the Polisario and their goal of independence from Morocco. Yet, does Algeria have an ulterior motive for their actions beyond support for a displaced people? This thesis examines how Algeria has utilized the Western Sahara conflict to undermine Morocco's plans for incorporating the territory. Applying hegemonic stability and rivalry theory to the conflict, Algeria's methods of challenging Moroccan claims are analyzed to see how its actions have weakened the objectives of Morocco towards Western Sahara as well as the perception of Morocco within the Maghreb region and internationally. The thesis suggests that as Algeria continues its support for the Polisario, it may have successfully challenged Morocco's attempt to incorporate the territory within its borders.

Le long des côtes nord-ouest africaines, parmi les plus poissonneuses au monde, les ressources halieutiques sont importantes tant du point de vue socio-économique que culturel. Les petits poissons pélagiques sont suivis au niveau sous régional depuis plus de trois décennies en s’appuyant sur les méthodes hydroacoustiques d’évaluation de stocks. Ces campagnes ont ainsi permis de fournir aux gouvernants une base scientifique en matière de prise de décision à des fins d’aménagement des pêcheries pélagiques. Un défi spécifique est de connaitre leur représentativité par rapport aux stocks ciblés. Nous rassurons sur cette représentativité sur la couverture de Sardinella aurita par ces campagnes. Par contre, pour S. maderensis une partie du stock ne serait pas échantillonnée et la méthode n’est pas adaptée pour Illisha africana et Ethmalosa fimbriata. Nous reportons des déplacements vers le nord dans la répartition de S. aurita et d’autres espèces de pélagique, attribués à la redistribution de l'intensité et de la productivité des upwellings [découpé en 5 sous zones du sud Maroc au sud Sénégal], diminuant ainsi l’abondance de la sardinelle dans la région côtière intertropicale. Pour la première fois en utilisant des séries chronologiques d'observation indépendantes à la méso-échelle, nous montrons un changement vers le nord dans la distribution de S. aurita depuis 1995 et l'attribuons au fort réchauffement de l'océan dans la région. De plus les changements spatiaux observés dans la biomasse de S. aurita au cours des 20 dernières années sont du même ordre de grandeur que ceux enregistrés pour les isothermes de surface. De tels changements auront une incidence sur les considérations politiques dans la gestion de la sécurité alimentaire dans plusieurs pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest. / Along the coast of North-West Africa, among the richest waters over the word, fish supply is important at both socio-economic and cultural levels. In this region, the small pelagic fish are the most abundant marine resources and are monitored using hydroacoustic stock assessment methods since more than three decades. These surveys have allowed providing to local authorities a sound scientific basis for deciding about the management of pelagic fisheries. A specific challenge is to know the representativity of these surveys with respect to the stocks targeted. In this work, we confirm this representativity for Sardinella aurita stock while for S. maderensis, a part of the stock could have not been sampled and for pour Ilisha africana and Ethmalosa fimbriata these surveys are not the best tool. Furthermore, Northward shifts in the distribution of sardinella in the Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem are recorded in this work and have been attributed to the redistribution of upwelling intensity and productivity, resulting in the abundance of sardinella decreasing in the inter-tropical coastal region. Here for the first time using independent observational time series, we report a robust northward shift in S. aurita since 1995 and attribute it to the strong ocean warming in the region. The observed spatial shifts in biomass in the last 20 years are of the same order of magnitude as those recorded for surface isotherms. Such changes will impact policy considerations in the management of food security in several West African countries and should be considered with respect to “Intended Nationally Determined Contributions”.

In semi-arid regions subject to rising temperatures and drought, palaeoecological insights into past vegetation dynamics under a range of boundary conditions are needed to develop our understanding of environmental responses to climatic changes. Here, we present a new high-resolution record of vegetation history and fire activity spanning the last 12,000 years from Lake Sidi Ali in the southern Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. The record is underpinned by a robust AMS radiocarbon and 210Pb/137Cs chronology and multi-proxy approach allowing direct comparison of vegetation, hydroclimate, and catchment tracers. The record reveals the persistence of steppic landscapes until 10,340 cal yr BP, prevailing sclerophyll woodland with evergreen Quercus until 6,300 cal yr BP, predominance of montane conifers (Cedrus and Cupressaceae) until 1,300 cal yr BP with matorralization and increased fire activity from 4,320 cal yr BP, and major reduction of forest cover after 1,300 cal yr BP. Detailed comparisons between the pollen record of Lake Sidi Ali (2,080m a.s.l.) and previously published data from nearby Tigalmamine (1,626m a.s.l.) highlight common patterns of vegetation change in response to Holocene climatic and anthropogenic drivers, as well as local differences relating to elevation and bioclimate contrasts between the sites. Variability in evergreen Quercus and Cedrus at both sites supports a Holocene summer temperature maximum between 9,000 and 7,000 cal yr BP in contrast with previous large-scale pollen-based climate reconstructions, and furthermore indicates pervasive millennial temperature variability. Millennial-scale cooling episodes are inferred from Cedrus expansion around 10,200, 8,200, 6,100, 4,500, 3,000, and 1,700 cal yr BP, and during the Little Ice Age (400 cal yr BP). A two-part trajectory of Late Holocene forest decline is evident, with gradual decline from 4,320 cal yr BP linked to synergism between pastoralism, increased fire and low winter rainfall, and a marked reduction from 1,300 cal yr BP, attributed to intensification of human activity around the Early Muslim conquest of Morocco. This trajectory, however, does not mask vegetation responses to millennial climate variability. The findings reveal the sensitive response ofMiddle Atlas forests to rapid climate changes and underscore the exposure of the montane forest ecosystems to future warming.

L’ibéromaurusien (23 000 - 9500 Cal BC) et le Capsien (9600 - 5000 Cal BC) sont deux cultures de la fin du paléolithique supérieur et de l’épipaléolithique d’Afrique du nord ; elles ont été définies sur la base de la typologie de leur assemblage d’industrie lithique. L’Ibéromaurusien est caractérisé par une industrie lamellaire microlithique et la Capsien par une industrie microlithique riche en segments minuscules, en microburins et microlamelles. La discontinuité biologique prêtée à ces deux groupes, sur la base d’arguments anthropologiques discutables, a fortement influencé le débat sur leur mode de remplacement. Ainsi une origine Moyen-Orientale a été proposée à la culture capsienne. Nous avons souhaité vérifier cette théorie à partir de l’étude du traitement funéraire dans ces deux groupes. En appliquant les méthodes de l’anthropologie funéraire moderne, nous proposons une révision critique de l’ensemble du corpus aujourd’hui disponible. Il comprend une soixantaine de sépultures Ibéromaurusiennes, renfermant 126 individus découverts dans 10 sites, 48 sépultures Capsiennes contenant 55 individus, issues de 13 sites, et enfin 38 sépultures du site de Columnata, livrant 89 individus. Nous avons scrupuleusement analysé les contextes de découvertes de ces individus dans les publications et les carnets de fouilles. Nous avons révisé les dénombrements, la détermination du sexe et l’estimation de l’âge au décès. Nous avons également exploré la surface de l’os à la recherche de stigmates permettant de valider ce que l’analyse taphonomique des sépultures laissait présager. Nous avons d’abord caractérisé le système funéraire de chacun de ces deux groupes, puis nous avons comparé les composants de ces deux systèmes afin de rechercher une éventuelle transmission ou rupture de coutume entre les deux sociétés. Les normes funéraires telles que nous les avons établies, confirment la spécificité de chacun de ces deux groupes. Les gestes funéraires sont différents et l’absence de transmission directe entre ces deux groupes de chasseurs cueilleurs est d’abord envisagée. Toutefois, l’interprétation ostéo-archéologique des sépultures révèle la présence d’une coutume funéraire minoritaire (conditionnelle), longue dans sa durée d’exécution, et complexe par la technique qu’elle requiert, quasi identique dans les deux groupes. Ce traitement passe par une étape de découpe du cadavre (décollation, désarticulation, décarnisation et éviscération), la tête après dépouillement est décorée parfois surmodelée. Enfin, le corps ainsi partitionné est inhumé en blocs anatomiques disloqués. Ce traitement, par les degrés d’apprentissage qu’il nécessite et la complexité de sa conception, suggère un lien direct entre les deux traditions. Cet héritage culturel Ibéromaurusien chez les Capsiens nous conduit à privilégier l’hypothèse d’une relation ancêtre-descendant et une origine locale de la culture Capsienne. / The iberomaurusien (23,000 - 9500 cal BC) and the Capsian (9600-5000 cal BC) are two cultures dating from the end of the upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic in North Africa. They have been established on the basis of the characterisitics of their lithic industries. The Iberomaurusien is characterized by a lamellar microblade industry and Capsian by a microblade industry rich in tiny segments and microburins microbladelets. Biological discontinuity of these two groups has been assumed on the basis of questionable anthropological arguments which have strongly influenced debate on their origins. Thus a Middle-Eastern origin has been proposed for the Capsian. We wanted to test this theory using a study of the mortuary practices in these two groups. By applying the perspective of modern mortuary anthropology, we offer a critical review of the entire available corpus. This includes 60 Iberomaurian graves, containing 126 individuals discovered in 10 sites, 48 Capsian graves containing 55 individuals from 13 sites, and 38 burials from the Columnata site providing 89 individuals. We carefully analyzed the contexts of discovery of these individuals as described in publications and field notes. We have revised the counts, the sex-determination and estimation of the age at death. We also explored the surface of the bones looking for stigmata to validate what a taphonomic analysis of the graves might reveal. We first characterized the burial system of each of these two groups, and then the components of these two systems were compared to find a possible transmission or break in burial custom between the two societies. The funeral practices as we have established them, confirm the specificity of these two groups. Funeral rituals are different and the absence of direct transfer between these two groups of hunter-gatherers is first considered. However, the osteo-archaeological interpretation of the graves revealed the presence of a (conditional) minority funeral custom, which lasted a long time, and required a complex technique, that was almost identical in the two groups. This treatment goes through a stage of dismembering the cadaver (beheading, disarticulation, butchering and evisceration), and the skull after flaying is sometimes plastered. Finally, thus partitioned, the body is buried assembled in dislocated anatomical blocks. This treatment, by the levels of knowledge that it requires, and the complexity of its design, suggests a direct link between the two traditions. This endurance of Iberomaurusian cultural heritage in the Capsian leads us to confirm the hypothesis of an ancestor-descendant relationship and a local origin of the Capsian culture.

Palynology, the study of organic microfossils, is an important tool for improving our understanding of past environments and landscapes. Palynology provides a wealth of information from which climatic and environmental conditions can be inferred. However, inferred climatic and environmental conditions are often open to interpretation. Assumptions made about past climate conditions from pollen assemblages often rely on qualitative understanding of modern-day vegetation distributions, rather than empirical relationships. Historic anthropogenic impact on the environment must also be inferred, and assessments made as to whether vegetation changes are a result of climate change or human impact. This study seeks to address some of the questions that arise through the interpretation of pollen assemblages, by establishing empirical relationships between the geochemistry of modern pollen and climate or environmental controls. It focuses on the pollen of the climatically sensitive montane conifer Cedrus atlantica, which is distributed across the mountains of Morocco and Algeria. The study investigates aspects of modern pollen geochemistry and morphology and finds a strong relationship between the stable carbon isotope composition of modern pollen and mean annual precipitation (r2 = 0.54, p <0.001) and summer precipitation (r2 = 0.63, p <0.0001). Furthermore, a stronger relationship exists with aridity measured using the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index (r2 = 0.86, p <0.0001), suggesting that the stable carbon isotope composition of Cedrus atlantica pollen is influenced by environmental moisture availability. The study also finds there is an increased abundance of ultraviolet absorbing compounds (UACs) in modern Cedrus atlantica pollen with increasing summer UV-B flux. This relationship was evident with samples growing in their native range (r2 = 0.84, p <0.0001), but not with samples from outside this range (r2 = 0.00, p = 0.99), suggesting a possible genetic influence. Lastly, the study finds that grain size of Cedrus atlantica pollen is highly variable within and between samples, and we rule out climatic control on pollen grain size. These results suggest that quantitative relationships can be established between the geochemistry of Cedrus atlantica pollen and environmental and climatic influences. Stable carbon isotope analysis of fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for reconstruction of summer moisture availability, while analysis of UACs in fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for the reconstruction of summer UV-B flux. These proxies will enhance our understanding of climatic and environmental change in Northwest Africa and will complement existing palynological techniques for environmental and climate reconstruction. Palynology, the study of organic microfossils, is an important tool for improving our understanding of past environments and landscapes. Palynology provides a wealth of information from which climatic and environmental conditions can be inferred. However, inferred climatic and environmental conditions are often open to interpretation. Assumptions made about past climate conditions from pollen assemblages often rely on qualitative understanding of modern-day vegetation distributions, rather than empirical relationships. Historic anthropogenic impact on the environment must also be inferred, and assessments made as to whether vegetation changes are a result of climate change or human impact. This study seeks to address some of the questions that arise through the interpretation of pollen assemblages, by establishing empirical relationships between the geochemistry of modern pollen and climate or environmental controls. It focuses on the pollen of the climatically sensitive montane conifer Cedrus atlantica, which is distributed across the mountains of Morocco and Algeria. The study investigates aspects of modern pollen geochemistry and morphology and finds a strong relationship between the stable carbon isotope composition of modern pollen and mean annual precipitation (r2 = 0.54, p <0.001) and summer precipitation (r2 = 0.63, p <0.0001). Furthermore, a stronger relationship exists with aridity measured using the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index (r2 = 0.86, p <0.0001), suggesting that the stable carbon isotope composition of Cedrus atlantica pollen is influenced by environmental moisture availability. The study also finds there is an increased abundance of ultraviolet absorbing compounds (UACs) in modern Cedrus atlantica pollen with increasing summer UV-B flux. This relationship was evident with samples growing in their native range (r2 = 0.84, p <0.0001), but not with samples from outside this range (r2 = 0.00, p = 0.99), suggesting a possible genetic influence. Lastly, the study finds that grain size of Cedrus atlantica pollen is highly variable within and between samples, and we rule out climatic control on pollen grain size. These results suggest that quantitative relationships can be established between the geochemistry of Cedrus atlantica pollen and environmental and climatic influences. Stable carbon isotope analysis of fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for reconstruction of summer moisture availability, while analysis of UACs in fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for the reconstruction of summer UV-B flux. These proxies will enhance our understanding of climatic and environmental change in Northwest Africa and will complement existing palynological techniques for environmental and climate reconstruction.