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Research into the comprehension of pronominal anaphora in reading has lead to contradictory conclusions about the role of pronouns in text and about how and when they are processed by the reader. This study investigated pronoun assignment from the point of view of the writer. Pronouns and other referring expressions were examined in the writing of six native American (Tohono O'odom) children over two years while in third and fourth grade. The young writers appropriately used and controlled the full range of pronouns in regard to person, number, case and gender. In the two hundred ten text analyzed, pronoun frequency was actually greater than the pronoun frequency in professionally authored text. This finding is attributed to an overgeneralization of the language principle of economy identified by Kenneth Goodman which states that pronouns are used whenever possible except where ambiguity would result. Unnecessary repetition of the noun phrase is, thus, avoided. That the young writers conform to the rule provides evidence that they understand and control the pronoun system. Reference establishment, reference miscues, and genre influences were investigated in relation to pronoun choice, strategies for choosing, and patterns of ambiguity. Strategies for avoiding ambiguity included the use of naming and length to disambiguate. Reference ambiguities were rare and occurred primarily in situations where the text merged with the context as when the definite article or demonstrative is used to point to something in the general context of the writing situation such as a picture or reference material. Although related indirectly to genre, the specific conditions of the assignment were found to affect the amount and kind of ambiguity most directly. Developmental effects were examined in relation to sense of audience. Implications are that the direct teaching of pronominal anaphora is not only a necessary but may be counterproductive because of the unnatural focus on something that is already controlled. This study confirms and supports the strength of a whole language classroom where a writing process approach is used.

This study examines problems involved in the management of chronic illness and disability in cross-cultural contexts. It specifically looks at conflicts between different belief systems and different discourse practices in cross-cultural communication between Tohono O'odham (Pagago) families of children with disabilities and non-Indian service providers. The discourse practices through which cultural knowledge is represented in face-to-face interaction, and the range of beliefs and practices which constitute cultural knowledge, are investigated sign ethnographic methods which emphasize a discourse-centered study of meaning and interaction. Utilizing information from participant observation, open-ended interviews, and naturally-occurring speech from a variety of interactional settings, the research focuses on both inter- and intra-cultural variation in knowledge and discourse. The major findings are: (1) a system of beliefs and practices about cause, prevention and treatment of serious illness exists in O'odham communities which differs significantly from the biomedical system within which medical and educational services to children with disabilities is provided; (2) intracultural variation exists in O'odham communities between language and knowledge held by specialists and lay people; and (3) the major genres used by O'odham people to provide information differ significantly from the formats routinely used by service providers to elicit information.

Papago Indian fields located in southern Arizona and northern Sonora, Mexico are examples of a food production strategy that was developed within the constraints of a water-limited environment. Although only a small percentage of the fields cultivated at the turn of the century remain in cultivation, extant fields are vestiges of an agricultural tradition that has persisted in arid lands for centuries. An examination of the documentary history of non-Indian observations of Papago agriculture and water control from 1697 to 1934 reveals numerous practices and features that are no longer apparent within or around remaining fields. Yet by learning from oral historical accounts of elderly Papago, and analyzing O'odham lexemes (native Papago terms) which guide farmers' management of fields, it is possible to gain a sense of folk science which Papago developed to successfully farm without permanent surface water reserves. Selected concepts from the folk science of the Papago are used as a point of departure in understanding the ecological processes which function within their fields. Standard field ecology methods were adapted to empirically test certain hypotheses relating to these ecological processes. Results include confirmation that Papago fields are situated in a variety of physiographic positions, and that ‘ak-ciñ arroyo mouth' farming is a misnomer. Papago crops exhibit many of the same drought-escaping adaptations as wild summer desert ephemerals for seed production during the brief summer rainy season, which varies from year to year in the date of its initiation. These adaptations greatly contribute to crop success. There are no significant differences in the diversity of herbaceous plants found in Papago fields compared to the diversity found in adjacent, uncultivated environments. Of the many nutrients analyzed in cultivated and uncultivated floodplain soils, only potassium was significantly richer in fields than in uncultivated floodplains; other differences were statistically insignificant. Floodwashed organic detritus, rather than the floodwaters themselves, appear to play the major role in renewing field soil fertility in certain localities. It is concluded that indigenous concepts which have long guided the management of traditional agricultural systems are of heuristic value in understanding how these farming systems function ecologically.

This report summarizes information on the prehistoric, historic, and ethnographic foundations for the cultural affiliation of burials and associated funerary objects from Casa Grande Ruins National Monument in Casa Grande, Arizona. This study was commissioned by the National Park Service’s Applied Ethnography Program in Washington, D.C., to identify American Indian tribes potentially affiliated with the human remains and associated funerary objects from Casa Grande Ruins National Monument. This study is one of the responses by the National Park Service to the requirements stipulated in the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990. The report should provide sufficient criteria for determining potentially affiliated individuals and tribes to be contacted for future consultation. This research determined the following Native American ethnic groups are affiliated to the national monument: Akimel O'odham, Tohono O’Odham, Zuni, Hopi, and Maricopa.

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Western science and Indigenous knowledge understand Southwest climate and the North American monsoon from different cultural perspectives. However, scant literature exists relating to climate and Indigenous communities in the Southwest. On the contrary, substantial climate research has occurred with Arctic Indigenous communities; however, a general aspiration among communities is Indigenous-led climate research and education. This requires more Native scientists and culturally responsive climate science curricula. Southwest Indigenous communities are primed to do this. This dissertation examines 1) the current scientific understanding of the North American monsoon, 2) the state of climate research in Indigenous communities, and 3) the development of culturally responsive climate science curricula. The first paper synthesizes the current scientific understanding of the monsoon and its interannual variability. Pacific Ocean-based teleconnections, such as ENSO-PDO combined indices do add skill in early-season monsoon forecasting. However, general circulation models continue to deal with computational-spatial resolution limitations challenging their application in future climate change projections of the monsoon. The second paper focuses on climate-related research in Indigenous communities in the Arctic and the Southwest to highlight lessons-learned. Climate researchers working with Native communities must exercise cultural considerations for Indigenous relationships with the climate and Indigenous protocols for acquiring and disseminating knowledge. Furthermore, increasing the number of Native students in science and Native scientists are ways to improve climate-related research in Indigenous communities. The third paper is a participatory action research approach to develop a culturally responsive climate science curriculum for Tohono O'odham high school and college students. This project worked with a community advisory board as well as Tohono O'odham Community College instructors and student interns. Pre-assessment surveys were given to community members learn of the most relevant weather and climate topics. The curriculum was developed incorporating local, culturally relevant topics. Climate workshops were offered in the communities using activities developed for the curriculum. Workshop evaluations were positive; however, they also addressed the need for more culturally relevant examples. The overlapping theme for these dissertation papers is cultural understanding for climate research and education in Indigenous communities toward a means for Indigenous-led climate research/education within their own communities.

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