Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a psychiatric condition that is characterized by two main symptom cohorts, namely recurrent inappropriate thoughts (obsessions) and seemingly purposeless repetitive motor actions (compulsions). In 70% of cases, the condition only re–sponds to chronic, but not sub–chronic, high dose treatment with the selective serotonin reup–take inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine and escitalopram. This indicates a role for hyposero–tonergic functioning in the primary brain areas involved in OCD, namely the components of the cortico–striatal–thalamic–cortical (CSTC) circuit which include the prefrontal cortex, the basal ganglia, and the thalamus. A number of studies have demonstrated a lower serotonin trans–porter (SERT) availability in OCD patients compared with healthy controls, supporting the hy–pothesis of a hyposerotonergic state in OCD. The current study focuses on the validation of the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii) model of OCD and builds on previous work done in our laboratory. Deer mice that are bred and housed in confinement naturally develop two main forms of stereotypical behaviour, namely vertical jumping and pattern running. Furthermore, these behaviours can be catego–rized into various levels of severity, namely high (HSB), low (LSB) and non–stereotypic (NSB) cohorts. The seemingly purposeless and repetitive nature of these behaviours mimics the com–pulsions that characterize human OCD and constitutes the basis for the face validity of the model. However, although these two forms of stereotypy seem equally repetitive and persis–tent, stereotypical pattern runners do not complete the required number of cage revolutions per 30 minutes compared to the amount of jumps executed by stereotypical vertical jumpers. As only one set of criteria for the appraisal of the different topographies of deer mouse stereotypy has been applied in previous studies, the matter of whether pattern runners do in fact generate stereotypical behaviour of the same persistent and severe nature as opposed to the behaviour expressed by vertical jumpers, is problematic. Therefore, the first objective of the current study was to develop a new classification system for the appraisal of the different forms of behavioural topographies of deer mice and subse–quently to evaluate whether pattern runners can indeed be categorized into non–, low– and high stereotypical cohorts. After an eight–week behavioural assessment period, deer mice express–ing the two different behavioural topographies could be classified into non–, low– and high stereotypical cohorts (NSB, LSB, and HSB respectively), applying different criteria for each be–havioural topography. Based on the weekly mean stereotypy count generated during three 30–minute intervals of highest stereotypical behaviour over the course of a 12–hour assessment period, HSB pattern runners were found to execute on average 296 cage revolutions per 30 minutes, while HSB vertical jumpers executed an average of 3063 jumps per 30 minutes. This discrepancy between the generated numbers of the different topographies of stereotypy indi–cates that one classification system for the appraisal of both behavioural topographies is indeed inappropriate, and hence requires re–evaluation and validation. As patients with OCD present with a lower central SERT availability compared to healthy controls, the second objective of the study was to determine whether a decrease in SERT den–sity could be demonstrated in HSB animals compared to the NSB and LSB controls. After eight weeks of behavioural assessment, animals were sacrificed and frontal–cortical and striatal SERT binding was performed. HSB deer mice presented with significantly lower striatal, but not fron–tal–cortical SERT availability compared to the [NSB/LSB] control animals (p = 0.0009). As far as it concerns a lower SERT availability in HSB animals and involvement of the CSTC circuitry, this data is congruent with that demonstrated in human OCD and strengthens the construct validity of the model. Although previous studies undertaken in our laboratory demonstrated that deer mouse stereotypy is attenuated after chronic (21–day) fluoxetine administration, OCD only responds to chronic, but not sub–chronic treatment with the SSRIs. The lack of response of deer mouse stereotypy to sub–chronic treatment has not been established and therefore the third study ob–jective was to assess the behavioural effects of sub–chronic (7–day) and chronic (28–day) SSRI treatment on expression of deer mouse stereotypy. Chronic, but not sub–chronic treatment with oral escitalopram (50 mg/kg/day) significantly increased the number of intervals over a 12–hour assessment period during which no stereotypical behaviour were expressed by HSB deer mice (p = 0.0241) and decreased the number of intervals during which high–stereotypical be–haviour were executed (p = 0.0054). Neither chronic, nor sub–chronic treatment significantly affected the behaviour of animals in the [NSB/LSB] cohort. The fact that the model demon–strates a lack of response to sub–chronic treatment with high dose SSRIs, positively contributes to the predictive validity of the deer mouse model of OCD. The results from the current study therefore strengthens the construct and predictive valid–ity of the deer mouse model of OCD and confirm the model’s status as a prominent animal model of OCD. Not only is hyposerotonergic functioning in the CSTC circuitry implicated in the behaviour of HSB animals, but the model also demonstrates selective response to chronic SSRI–treatment - two core characteristics of human OCD. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Estudos evidenciam a eficácia da terapia cognitivo-comportamental em grupo (TCCG) para pacientes com transtorno de pânico (TP) e para pacientes com transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo (TOC). O processo das terapias em grupo é complexo e apresentam fatores considerados terapêuticos por facilitarem novas aprendizagens. Entretanto, estudos sobre o processo terapêutico de TCCG ainda são escassos. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: avaliar o efeito dos fatores terapêuticos na resposta à TCCG para pacientes com TP e para pacientes com TOC; identificar e relacionar os fatores terapêuticos que ocorrem na TCCG com a fase e as técnicas cognitivo-comportamentais. Trata-se de um ensaio clínico de 12 sessões de TCCG para TP e para TOC. A gravidade dos sintomas foi avaliada antes e depois da TCCG. Em pacientes com TP, utilizou-se a Escala de gravidade do TP (PDSS), a Impressão Clínica Global (CGI), a Hamilton Ansiedade (HAM-A) e o Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI). Em pacientes com TOC, a gravidade específica foi avaliada pela Escala Obsessivo-Compulsivo de Yale-Brown (Y-BOCS) e pela CGI, bem como pela HAM-A e pelo BDI. O Questionário de Fatores Terapêuticos de Yalom foi aplicado no final de cada sessão para avaliar os 12 fatores: altruísmo, coesão, universalidade, aprendizagem interpessoal-input, aprendizagem interpessoal-output, orientação, catarse, identificação, redefinição familiar, autocompreensão, instilação de esperança e fatores existenciais. O estudo foi aprovado pelo CEP/HCPA (nº 130400). Todos os pacientes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. A amostra foi composta por 31 pacientes, sendo 16 no grupo do TP com idade média de 36,2(DP=9,98) anos e 15 pacientes no grupo do TOC com idade média de 37,4(DP=11,10) anos. Os fatores terapêuticos totalizaram 192 observações no grupo do TP e 180 no grupo do TOC. Houve melhora significativa da gravidade dos sintomas de ansiedade, depressivos e específicos comparados com a avaliação inicial em ambos os grupos (p<0,001). Oito fatores foram considerados de utilidade significativa para os pacientes ao longo das sessões do grupo do TP. Observou-se interação significativa no grupo dos pacientes com TP entre o efeito do fator reedição familiar na melhora dos sintomas de ansiedade e depressivos. Os fatores existenciais foram significativos com a melhora dos sintomas depressivos e com os específicos do TP verificado pela PDSS. Quanto à CGI no TP, não se verificou interação significativa com nenhum fator terapêutico. No grupo de pacientes com TOC, os fatores considerados mais úteis foram dois. Constatou-se interação significativa no grupo do TOC entre o efeito de nove fatores e a melhora dos sintomas de ansiedade, porém nenhuma interção com sintomas depressivos. Também houve interação significativa entre a melhora dos sintomas obsessivo-compulsivos verificado pela YBOCS com altruísmo, universalidade, aprendizagem interpessoal-input e output, reedição familiar, autocompreensão e fatores existenciais. Quanto à CGI no TOC, houve interação significativa com os fatores aprendizagem interpessoal-input, autocompreensão e fatores existenciais. Os resultados demonstram que fatores terapêuticos de grupo influenciam positivamente a resposta da TCCG para ambos os grupos. Contudo, existem diferenças de efeito a serem consideradas para que haja melhor compreensão do processo terapêutico e aprimoramento da terapia de grupo. / Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBGT) for patients with panic disorder (PD) and those with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The group therapy process is complex and has factors deemed to be therapeutic, in that they facilitate new learning. However, studies on the CBGT therapeutic process are still scarce. The objectives of this study were: assess the effect of therapeutic factors in the response to CBGT of PD patients and OCD patients; identify and relate the therapeutic factors that occur in CBGT with the stage and cognitive-behavioral techniques. This study is a clinical trial involving 12 CBGT sessions for PD and OCD. Severity of symptoms was assessed before and after CBGT. In PD patients, the PD Severity Scale (PDSS), Clinical Global Impression (CGI), Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAM-A) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were used. In OCD patients, specific severity was assessed using the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), CGI, HAM-A and BDI. Yalom's Curative Factors Questionnaire was administered at the end of each session to evaluate 12 factors, namely: altruism, cohesiveness, universality, interpersonal learning input, interpersonal learning output, guidance, catharsis, identification, family re-enactment, self-understanding, instillation of hope and existential factors. The study was approved by the CEP/HCPA (No. 130400). All patients signed a free and informed consent form. The sample consisted of 31 patients: 16 in the PD group with a mean age of 36.2 (SD=9.98) years and 15 patients in the OCD group with a mean age of 37.4 (SD=11.10) years. The therapeutic factors totaled 192 observations in the PD group and 180 in the OCD group. There was significant improvement in severity of symptoms of anxiety, depression and specific ones, compared to the baseline assessment in both groups (p<0.001). Eight factors were considered to provide significant benefits to patients over the course of the PD group sessions. There was significant interaction in the PD group related to the effect of the family re-enactment factor in improving the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Existential factors were significant in the improvement of depressive symptoms and PD-specific ones as seen with the PDSS. As far as CGI in the PD group, no significant interaction with any therapeutic factor was noted. In the OCD group, two factors were considered to be the most helpful. There was significant interaction in the OCD group between the effect of nine factors and improvement of the symptoms of anxiety. However, no interaction with depressive symptoms was noted. There was also significant interaction between improvement in obsessive-compulsive symptoms as seen with the YBOCS, in terms of altruism, universality, interpersonal learning input and output, family re-enactment, self-understanding and existential factors. With respect to CGI in the OCD group, there was significant interaction with the factors of interpersonal learning input, self-understanding and existential factors. The results show that group therapeutic factors positively influence the response to CBGT in both groups. However, there are differences of effect to be considered, in order to better understand the therapeutic process and improve group therapy. / Estudios evidencian la eficacia de la terapia cognitivo-actitudinal en grupo (TCCG) para pacientes con trastorno de pánico (TP) y para pacientes con trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo (TOC). El proceso de las terapias en grupo es complejo y presenta factores considerados terapéuticos por facilitar nuevos aprendizajes. Sin embargo, estudios sobre el proceso terapéutico de TCCG todavía son escasos. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron: evaluar el efecto de los factores terapéuticos en la respuesta a la TCCG para pacientes con TP y para pacientes con TOC; identificar y relacionar los factores terapéuticos que ocurren en la TCCG con la etapa y las técnicas cognitivo-actitudinales. Se trata de un ensayo clínico de 12 sesiones de TCCG para TP y para TOC. La gravedad de los síntomas se la evaluó antes y después de la TCCG. En conjunto con TP, se utilizó la Escala de Gravedad del TP (PDSS), la Impresión Clínica Global (CGI), la Hamilton Ansiedad (HAM-A) y el Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI). En pacientes con TOC, la gravedad específica fue evaluada por la Escala Obsesivo-Compulsivo de Yale-Brown (Y-BOCS) y por la CGI, así como por la HAM-A y por el BDI. El cuestionario de factores terapéuticos de Yalom se aplicó al final de cada sesión para evaluar los 12 factores, a saber: altruismo, cohesión, universalidad, aprendizaje interpersonal-input aprendizaje interpersonal- output, orientación, catarsis, identificación, redefinición familiar, autocomprensión, instilación de esperanza y factores existenciales. El estudio lo aprobó el CEP/HCPA (nº 130400). Todos los pacientes firmaron el término de consentimiento libre y aclarado. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 31 pacientes, 16 en el grupo do TP con edad promedio de 36,2(DP=9,98) años y 15 pacientes en el grupo do TOC con promedio de edad de 37,4(DP=11,10) años. Los factores terapéuticos totalizaron 192 observaciones en el grupo del TP y 180 en el grupo del TOC. Hubo mejora significativa de la gravedad de los síntomas de ansiedad, depresivos y específicos comparados con la evaluación inicial en ambos grupos (p<0,001). Ocho factores fueron considerados de utilidad significativa para los pacientes a lo largo de las sesiones del grupo del TP. Se observó interacción significativa en el grupo de los pacientes con TP entre el efecto del factor reedición familiar en la mejora de los síntomas de ansiedad y depresivos. Los factores existenciales fueron significativos con la mejora de los síntomas depresivos y con los específicos del TP verificado por la PDSS. Cuanto a la CGI en el TP, no se verificó interacción significativa con ningún factor terapéutico. En el grupo de pacientes con TOC, los factores considerados más útiles fueron dos. Se constató interacción significativa en el grupo del TOC entre el efecto de nueve factores y la mejora de los síntomas de ansiedad, pero ninguna interacción con síntomas depresivos. También hubo interacción significativa entre la mejora de los síntomas obsesivo-compulsivos verificado por la YBOCS con altruismo, universalidad, aprendizaje interpersonal input y output reedición familiar, autocomprensión y factores existenciales. Cuanto a la CGI en el TOC, hubo interacción significativa con los factores aprendizaje interpersonal input, autocomprensión y factores existenciales. Los resultados demuestran que factores terapéuticos de grupo influyen positivamente la respuesta de la TCCG para ambos grupos. Sin embargo, existen diferencias de efecto a ser consideradas para que haya mejor comprensión del proceso terapéutico y perfeccionamiento de la terapia de grupo.

Estudos evidenciam a eficácia da terapia cognitivo-comportamental em grupo (TCCG) para pacientes com transtorno de pânico (TP) e para pacientes com transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo (TOC). O processo das terapias em grupo é complexo e apresentam fatores considerados terapêuticos por facilitarem novas aprendizagens. Entretanto, estudos sobre o processo terapêutico de TCCG ainda são escassos. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: avaliar o efeito dos fatores terapêuticos na resposta à TCCG para pacientes com TP e para pacientes com TOC; identificar e relacionar os fatores terapêuticos que ocorrem na TCCG com a fase e as técnicas cognitivo-comportamentais. Trata-se de um ensaio clínico de 12 sessões de TCCG para TP e para TOC. A gravidade dos sintomas foi avaliada antes e depois da TCCG. Em pacientes com TP, utilizou-se a Escala de gravidade do TP (PDSS), a Impressão Clínica Global (CGI), a Hamilton Ansiedade (HAM-A) e o Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI). Em pacientes com TOC, a gravidade específica foi avaliada pela Escala Obsessivo-Compulsivo de Yale-Brown (Y-BOCS) e pela CGI, bem como pela HAM-A e pelo BDI. O Questionário de Fatores Terapêuticos de Yalom foi aplicado no final de cada sessão para avaliar os 12 fatores: altruísmo, coesão, universalidade, aprendizagem interpessoal-input, aprendizagem interpessoal-output, orientação, catarse, identificação, redefinição familiar, autocompreensão, instilação de esperança e fatores existenciais. O estudo foi aprovado pelo CEP/HCPA (nº 130400). Todos os pacientes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. A amostra foi composta por 31 pacientes, sendo 16 no grupo do TP com idade média de 36,2(DP=9,98) anos e 15 pacientes no grupo do TOC com idade média de 37,4(DP=11,10) anos. Os fatores terapêuticos totalizaram 192 observações no grupo do TP e 180 no grupo do TOC. Houve melhora significativa da gravidade dos sintomas de ansiedade, depressivos e específicos comparados com a avaliação inicial em ambos os grupos (p<0,001). Oito fatores foram considerados de utilidade significativa para os pacientes ao longo das sessões do grupo do TP. Observou-se interação significativa no grupo dos pacientes com TP entre o efeito do fator reedição familiar na melhora dos sintomas de ansiedade e depressivos. Os fatores existenciais foram significativos com a melhora dos sintomas depressivos e com os específicos do TP verificado pela PDSS. Quanto à CGI no TP, não se verificou interação significativa com nenhum fator terapêutico. No grupo de pacientes com TOC, os fatores considerados mais úteis foram dois. Constatou-se interação significativa no grupo do TOC entre o efeito de nove fatores e a melhora dos sintomas de ansiedade, porém nenhuma interção com sintomas depressivos. Também houve interação significativa entre a melhora dos sintomas obsessivo-compulsivos verificado pela YBOCS com altruísmo, universalidade, aprendizagem interpessoal-input e output, reedição familiar, autocompreensão e fatores existenciais. Quanto à CGI no TOC, houve interação significativa com os fatores aprendizagem interpessoal-input, autocompreensão e fatores existenciais. Os resultados demonstram que fatores terapêuticos de grupo influenciam positivamente a resposta da TCCG para ambos os grupos. Contudo, existem diferenças de efeito a serem consideradas para que haja melhor compreensão do processo terapêutico e aprimoramento da terapia de grupo. / Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBGT) for patients with panic disorder (PD) and those with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The group therapy process is complex and has factors deemed to be therapeutic, in that they facilitate new learning. However, studies on the CBGT therapeutic process are still scarce. The objectives of this study were: assess the effect of therapeutic factors in the response to CBGT of PD patients and OCD patients; identify and relate the therapeutic factors that occur in CBGT with the stage and cognitive-behavioral techniques. This study is a clinical trial involving 12 CBGT sessions for PD and OCD. Severity of symptoms was assessed before and after CBGT. In PD patients, the PD Severity Scale (PDSS), Clinical Global Impression (CGI), Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAM-A) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were used. In OCD patients, specific severity was assessed using the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), CGI, HAM-A and BDI. Yalom's Curative Factors Questionnaire was administered at the end of each session to evaluate 12 factors, namely: altruism, cohesiveness, universality, interpersonal learning input, interpersonal learning output, guidance, catharsis, identification, family re-enactment, self-understanding, instillation of hope and existential factors. The study was approved by the CEP/HCPA (No. 130400). All patients signed a free and informed consent form. The sample consisted of 31 patients: 16 in the PD group with a mean age of 36.2 (SD=9.98) years and 15 patients in the OCD group with a mean age of 37.4 (SD=11.10) years. The therapeutic factors totaled 192 observations in the PD group and 180 in the OCD group. There was significant improvement in severity of symptoms of anxiety, depression and specific ones, compared to the baseline assessment in both groups (p<0.001). Eight factors were considered to provide significant benefits to patients over the course of the PD group sessions. There was significant interaction in the PD group related to the effect of the family re-enactment factor in improving the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Existential factors were significant in the improvement of depressive symptoms and PD-specific ones as seen with the PDSS. As far as CGI in the PD group, no significant interaction with any therapeutic factor was noted. In the OCD group, two factors were considered to be the most helpful. There was significant interaction in the OCD group between the effect of nine factors and improvement of the symptoms of anxiety. However, no interaction with depressive symptoms was noted. There was also significant interaction between improvement in obsessive-compulsive symptoms as seen with the YBOCS, in terms of altruism, universality, interpersonal learning input and output, family re-enactment, self-understanding and existential factors. With respect to CGI in the OCD group, there was significant interaction with the factors of interpersonal learning input, self-understanding and existential factors. The results show that group therapeutic factors positively influence the response to CBGT in both groups. However, there are differences of effect to be considered, in order to better understand the therapeutic process and improve group therapy. / Estudios evidencian la eficacia de la terapia cognitivo-actitudinal en grupo (TCCG) para pacientes con trastorno de pánico (TP) y para pacientes con trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo (TOC). El proceso de las terapias en grupo es complejo y presenta factores considerados terapéuticos por facilitar nuevos aprendizajes. Sin embargo, estudios sobre el proceso terapéutico de TCCG todavía son escasos. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron: evaluar el efecto de los factores terapéuticos en la respuesta a la TCCG para pacientes con TP y para pacientes con TOC; identificar y relacionar los factores terapéuticos que ocurren en la TCCG con la etapa y las técnicas cognitivo-actitudinales. Se trata de un ensayo clínico de 12 sesiones de TCCG para TP y para TOC. La gravedad de los síntomas se la evaluó antes y después de la TCCG. En conjunto con TP, se utilizó la Escala de Gravedad del TP (PDSS), la Impresión Clínica Global (CGI), la Hamilton Ansiedad (HAM-A) y el Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI). En pacientes con TOC, la gravedad específica fue evaluada por la Escala Obsesivo-Compulsivo de Yale-Brown (Y-BOCS) y por la CGI, así como por la HAM-A y por el BDI. El cuestionario de factores terapéuticos de Yalom se aplicó al final de cada sesión para evaluar los 12 factores, a saber: altruismo, cohesión, universalidad, aprendizaje interpersonal-input aprendizaje interpersonal- output, orientación, catarsis, identificación, redefinición familiar, autocomprensión, instilación de esperanza y factores existenciales. El estudio lo aprobó el CEP/HCPA (nº 130400). Todos los pacientes firmaron el término de consentimiento libre y aclarado. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 31 pacientes, 16 en el grupo do TP con edad promedio de 36,2(DP=9,98) años y 15 pacientes en el grupo do TOC con promedio de edad de 37,4(DP=11,10) años. Los factores terapéuticos totalizaron 192 observaciones en el grupo del TP y 180 en el grupo del TOC. Hubo mejora significativa de la gravedad de los síntomas de ansiedad, depresivos y específicos comparados con la evaluación inicial en ambos grupos (p<0,001). Ocho factores fueron considerados de utilidad significativa para los pacientes a lo largo de las sesiones del grupo del TP. Se observó interacción significativa en el grupo de los pacientes con TP entre el efecto del factor reedición familiar en la mejora de los síntomas de ansiedad y depresivos. Los factores existenciales fueron significativos con la mejora de los síntomas depresivos y con los específicos del TP verificado por la PDSS. Cuanto a la CGI en el TP, no se verificó interacción significativa con ningún factor terapéutico. En el grupo de pacientes con TOC, los factores considerados más útiles fueron dos. Se constató interacción significativa en el grupo del TOC entre el efecto de nueve factores y la mejora de los síntomas de ansiedad, pero ninguna interacción con síntomas depresivos. También hubo interacción significativa entre la mejora de los síntomas obsesivo-compulsivos verificado por la YBOCS con altruismo, universalidad, aprendizaje interpersonal input y output reedición familiar, autocomprensión y factores existenciales. Cuanto a la CGI en el TOC, hubo interacción significativa con los factores aprendizaje interpersonal input, autocomprensión y factores existenciales. Los resultados demuestran que factores terapéuticos de grupo influyen positivamente la respuesta de la TCCG para ambos grupos. Sin embargo, existen diferencias de efecto a ser consideradas para que haya mejor comprensión del proceso terapéutico y perfeccionamiento de la terapia de grupo.

Estudos evidenciam a eficácia da terapia cognitivo-comportamental em grupo (TCCG) para pacientes com transtorno de pânico (TP) e para pacientes com transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo (TOC). O processo das terapias em grupo é complexo e apresentam fatores considerados terapêuticos por facilitarem novas aprendizagens. Entretanto, estudos sobre o processo terapêutico de TCCG ainda são escassos. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: avaliar o efeito dos fatores terapêuticos na resposta à TCCG para pacientes com TP e para pacientes com TOC; identificar e relacionar os fatores terapêuticos que ocorrem na TCCG com a fase e as técnicas cognitivo-comportamentais. Trata-se de um ensaio clínico de 12 sessões de TCCG para TP e para TOC. A gravidade dos sintomas foi avaliada antes e depois da TCCG. Em pacientes com TP, utilizou-se a Escala de gravidade do TP (PDSS), a Impressão Clínica Global (CGI), a Hamilton Ansiedade (HAM-A) e o Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI). Em pacientes com TOC, a gravidade específica foi avaliada pela Escala Obsessivo-Compulsivo de Yale-Brown (Y-BOCS) e pela CGI, bem como pela HAM-A e pelo BDI. O Questionário de Fatores Terapêuticos de Yalom foi aplicado no final de cada sessão para avaliar os 12 fatores: altruísmo, coesão, universalidade, aprendizagem interpessoal-input, aprendizagem interpessoal-output, orientação, catarse, identificação, redefinição familiar, autocompreensão, instilação de esperança e fatores existenciais. O estudo foi aprovado pelo CEP/HCPA (nº 130400). Todos os pacientes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. A amostra foi composta por 31 pacientes, sendo 16 no grupo do TP com idade média de 36,2(DP=9,98) anos e 15 pacientes no grupo do TOC com idade média de 37,4(DP=11,10) anos. Os fatores terapêuticos totalizaram 192 observações no grupo do TP e 180 no grupo do TOC. Houve melhora significativa da gravidade dos sintomas de ansiedade, depressivos e específicos comparados com a avaliação inicial em ambos os grupos (p<0,001). Oito fatores foram considerados de utilidade significativa para os pacientes ao longo das sessões do grupo do TP. Observou-se interação significativa no grupo dos pacientes com TP entre o efeito do fator reedição familiar na melhora dos sintomas de ansiedade e depressivos. Os fatores existenciais foram significativos com a melhora dos sintomas depressivos e com os específicos do TP verificado pela PDSS. Quanto à CGI no TP, não se verificou interação significativa com nenhum fator terapêutico. No grupo de pacientes com TOC, os fatores considerados mais úteis foram dois. Constatou-se interação significativa no grupo do TOC entre o efeito de nove fatores e a melhora dos sintomas de ansiedade, porém nenhuma interção com sintomas depressivos. Também houve interação significativa entre a melhora dos sintomas obsessivo-compulsivos verificado pela YBOCS com altruísmo, universalidade, aprendizagem interpessoal-input e output, reedição familiar, autocompreensão e fatores existenciais. Quanto à CGI no TOC, houve interação significativa com os fatores aprendizagem interpessoal-input, autocompreensão e fatores existenciais. Os resultados demonstram que fatores terapêuticos de grupo influenciam positivamente a resposta da TCCG para ambos os grupos. Contudo, existem diferenças de efeito a serem consideradas para que haja melhor compreensão do processo terapêutico e aprimoramento da terapia de grupo. / Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBGT) for patients with panic disorder (PD) and those with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The group therapy process is complex and has factors deemed to be therapeutic, in that they facilitate new learning. However, studies on the CBGT therapeutic process are still scarce. The objectives of this study were: assess the effect of therapeutic factors in the response to CBGT of PD patients and OCD patients; identify and relate the therapeutic factors that occur in CBGT with the stage and cognitive-behavioral techniques. This study is a clinical trial involving 12 CBGT sessions for PD and OCD. Severity of symptoms was assessed before and after CBGT. In PD patients, the PD Severity Scale (PDSS), Clinical Global Impression (CGI), Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAM-A) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were used. In OCD patients, specific severity was assessed using the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), CGI, HAM-A and BDI. Yalom's Curative Factors Questionnaire was administered at the end of each session to evaluate 12 factors, namely: altruism, cohesiveness, universality, interpersonal learning input, interpersonal learning output, guidance, catharsis, identification, family re-enactment, self-understanding, instillation of hope and existential factors. The study was approved by the CEP/HCPA (No. 130400). All patients signed a free and informed consent form. The sample consisted of 31 patients: 16 in the PD group with a mean age of 36.2 (SD=9.98) years and 15 patients in the OCD group with a mean age of 37.4 (SD=11.10) years. The therapeutic factors totaled 192 observations in the PD group and 180 in the OCD group. There was significant improvement in severity of symptoms of anxiety, depression and specific ones, compared to the baseline assessment in both groups (p<0.001). Eight factors were considered to provide significant benefits to patients over the course of the PD group sessions. There was significant interaction in the PD group related to the effect of the family re-enactment factor in improving the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Existential factors were significant in the improvement of depressive symptoms and PD-specific ones as seen with the PDSS. As far as CGI in the PD group, no significant interaction with any therapeutic factor was noted. In the OCD group, two factors were considered to be the most helpful. There was significant interaction in the OCD group between the effect of nine factors and improvement of the symptoms of anxiety. However, no interaction with depressive symptoms was noted. There was also significant interaction between improvement in obsessive-compulsive symptoms as seen with the YBOCS, in terms of altruism, universality, interpersonal learning input and output, family re-enactment, self-understanding and existential factors. With respect to CGI in the OCD group, there was significant interaction with the factors of interpersonal learning input, self-understanding and existential factors. The results show that group therapeutic factors positively influence the response to CBGT in both groups. However, there are differences of effect to be considered, in order to better understand the therapeutic process and improve group therapy. / Estudios evidencian la eficacia de la terapia cognitivo-actitudinal en grupo (TCCG) para pacientes con trastorno de pánico (TP) y para pacientes con trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo (TOC). El proceso de las terapias en grupo es complejo y presenta factores considerados terapéuticos por facilitar nuevos aprendizajes. Sin embargo, estudios sobre el proceso terapéutico de TCCG todavía son escasos. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron: evaluar el efecto de los factores terapéuticos en la respuesta a la TCCG para pacientes con TP y para pacientes con TOC; identificar y relacionar los factores terapéuticos que ocurren en la TCCG con la etapa y las técnicas cognitivo-actitudinales. Se trata de un ensayo clínico de 12 sesiones de TCCG para TP y para TOC. La gravedad de los síntomas se la evaluó antes y después de la TCCG. En conjunto con TP, se utilizó la Escala de Gravedad del TP (PDSS), la Impresión Clínica Global (CGI), la Hamilton Ansiedad (HAM-A) y el Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI). En pacientes con TOC, la gravedad específica fue evaluada por la Escala Obsesivo-Compulsivo de Yale-Brown (Y-BOCS) y por la CGI, así como por la HAM-A y por el BDI. El cuestionario de factores terapéuticos de Yalom se aplicó al final de cada sesión para evaluar los 12 factores, a saber: altruismo, cohesión, universalidad, aprendizaje interpersonal-input aprendizaje interpersonal- output, orientación, catarsis, identificación, redefinición familiar, autocomprensión, instilación de esperanza y factores existenciales. El estudio lo aprobó el CEP/HCPA (nº 130400). Todos los pacientes firmaron el término de consentimiento libre y aclarado. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 31 pacientes, 16 en el grupo do TP con edad promedio de 36,2(DP=9,98) años y 15 pacientes en el grupo do TOC con promedio de edad de 37,4(DP=11,10) años. Los factores terapéuticos totalizaron 192 observaciones en el grupo del TP y 180 en el grupo del TOC. Hubo mejora significativa de la gravedad de los síntomas de ansiedad, depresivos y específicos comparados con la evaluación inicial en ambos grupos (p<0,001). Ocho factores fueron considerados de utilidad significativa para los pacientes a lo largo de las sesiones del grupo del TP. Se observó interacción significativa en el grupo de los pacientes con TP entre el efecto del factor reedición familiar en la mejora de los síntomas de ansiedad y depresivos. Los factores existenciales fueron significativos con la mejora de los síntomas depresivos y con los específicos del TP verificado por la PDSS. Cuanto a la CGI en el TP, no se verificó interacción significativa con ningún factor terapéutico. En el grupo de pacientes con TOC, los factores considerados más útiles fueron dos. Se constató interacción significativa en el grupo del TOC entre el efecto de nueve factores y la mejora de los síntomas de ansiedad, pero ninguna interacción con síntomas depresivos. También hubo interacción significativa entre la mejora de los síntomas obsesivo-compulsivos verificado por la YBOCS con altruismo, universalidad, aprendizaje interpersonal input y output reedición familiar, autocomprensión y factores existenciales. Cuanto a la CGI en el TOC, hubo interacción significativa con los factores aprendizaje interpersonal input, autocomprensión y factores existenciales. Los resultados demuestran que factores terapéuticos de grupo influyen positivamente la respuesta de la TCCG para ambos grupos. Sin embargo, existen diferencias de efecto a ser consideradas para que haya mejor comprensión del proceso terapéutico y perfeccionamiento de la terapia de grupo.

Le trouble obsessionnel-compulsif (TOC) se caractérise par la présence d’obsessions et/ou de compulsions. À la lumière de l’hétérogénéité du TOC et de la présence de styles de pensées et de comportements de type TOC chez des personnes présentant d’autres problèmes de santé mentale, certains ont fait valoir la nécessité de créer une catégorie des troubles du spectre obsessionnel-compulsif et d’identifier les processus cognitifs communs qui sous-tendent ces troubles afin d’élaborer des théories et des traitements plus parcimonieux. Une tendance générale à douter de ses sens et de ses facultés cognitives semble être le pivot des troubles obsessionnels. Selon l’approche basée sur les inférences, le doute obsessionnel est suscité par un processus de raisonnement erroné, soit la confusion inférentielle (CI). La CI implique (1) une méfiance vis-à-vis des sens et (2) une importance indue accordée aux possibilités imaginaires. La faible confiance cognitive (CC), un processus cognitif similaire, renvoie à une méfiance par rapport à son attention, sa perception et sa mémoire. Cette thèse a visé à étudier la CI et la faible CC en tant que potentiels facteurs cognitifs transdiagnostiques dans le spectre de l’obsessionnalité. Le premier article constitue une revue systématique avec méta-analyse destinée à évaluer le rôle de la CC pour différents sous-types du TOC et à examiner à quel degré la faible CC est associée aux symptômes du TOC. On a constaté que les individus atteints d’un TOC présentent une plus faible CC que les témoins sains, mais que celle-ci ne semble pas spécifique au TOC. L’article a aussi souligné la nécessité d’employer des tâches idiosyncratiques, ciblant les distorsions de la pensée propres au TOC, afin de bien mesurer la CC. Dans le cadre du deuxième article, le but a été d’approfondir cette piste de recherche en examinant le rôle commun de la faible CC et de la CI pour les différents sous-types du TOC, en procédant à des analyses de grappes avec un échantillon de 128 patients atteints d’un TOC. Alors qu’il a été constaté que la faible CC correspondait davantage aux sous-types de vérification et « tout à fait juste », la CI semble pertinente pour un plus large éventail de profils TOC. Le troisième article examine le rôle de la CI chez les troubles des conduites alimentaires (TCAs) en provoquant la CI expérimentalement. Des participantes atteintes d’un TA (n = 18) et des femmes témoins saines (n = 18) ont été assignées à l’une des deux conditions expérimentales : pour la condition CI élevée, les participantes ont visionné des vidéos où des séquences clés étaient manquantes, ce qui suscitait la CI; pour la condition CI faible, les participantes ont visionné les vidéos intégrales. Chez le groupe TA assigné à la condition CI élevée, on a observé une tendance à présenter un état de CI post-vidéos supérieur, un recours accru au comportement de neutralisation et, enfin, davantage de symptômes TOC. En somme, les résultats de cette thèse soulignent la pertinence de la CI et de la faible CC en tant que facteurs cognitifs transdiagnostiques sur le spectre obsessionnel-compulsif. / Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a severe mental health disorder that involves obsessions and/or compulsions. In light of the heterogeneity of OCD and of the presence of OCD-like thinking and behaviors in several disorders, some have argued for the necessity of a new category of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. Considering the overlap between various disorders characterized by obsessionality, there is a need for the identification of common cognitive processes that underpin these disorders in order to formulate more parsimonious explanations and treatments for these conditions. A general tendency to doubt the senses and cognitive faculties appears as central to obsessional disorders. According to the inference-based approach, the obsessional doubt is elicited by a faulty reasoning process known as inferential confusion (IC), that implicates (1) a distrust of the senses, and (2) an investment in imaginary possibilities. A similar construct is low cognitive confidence, which is defined as a distrust of one’s attention, perception and memory. The overarching goal of this thesis was to examine IC and low cognitive confidence as potential transdiagnostic cognitive factors across the spectrum of obsessionality. The first thesis article evaluated the role of cognitive confidence across OCD subtypes and examined the extent to which poor cognitive confidence is associated with OCD symptomatology by conducting a systematic review with a meta-analysis. This article led to the conclusion that individuals with OCD have lower cognitive confidence than healthy controls, but that it is unclear if cognitive confidence is specific to OCD, such that the use of idiosyncratic tasks appears to be required in order to correctly capture cognitive confidence in OCD. The second thesis article furthered this investigation by examining the joint role of low cognitive confidence and IC across OCD subtypes by performing cluster analyses using a sample of 128 individuals with OCD. While cognitive confidence was found to more relevant to the checking and “just right” subtypes, IC appeared to be relevant to a wider range of OCD profiles. The third thesis article sought to examine the role of IC in eating disorders by inducing IC experimentally. Female participants with an eating disorder (n = 18) and healthy controls participants (n = 18) were recruited. Participants were assigned to one of two experimental conditions: in the High IC condition, participants watched videos with key sequences missing – provoking a distrust of the senses and lending more space for the imagination, thus triggering IC. In the Low IC condition, participants watched videos without sequences missing. The eating disorder group assigned to the High IC condition demonstrated a trend for higher levels of state IC, greater neutralization behavior and higher OCD symptoms than those who were assigned to the Low IC condition. Taken together, the results of the present thesis underline the relevance of IC and cognitive confidence as transdiagnostic cognitive factors across the obsessive-compulsive spectrum.

L’incertitude est un processus cognitif communément expérimenté lors d’une prise de décision. Dansle trouble obsessionnel-compulsif (TOC), il est excessif et compromet les capacités décisionnelles del'individu.Ce travail avait comme objectif une meilleure compréhension des aspects physiologiques etphysiopathologiques de l’incertitude, au travers d'une double approche, comportementale etélectrophysiologique. Dans un premier temps, nous avons construit une tâche originale qui permetd'exprimer son incertitude au cours d'une prise de décision. Avec cette "tâche d’incertitude", nousavons exploré les relations entre mémoire de travail et incertitude. Nous avons montré que lescapacités de mémoire de travail prédisaient la propension à l'incertitude chez les volontaires sains alorsque l'incertitude était suivie d'une dégradation des performances mnésiques chez les patients TOC.Puis, nous avons trouvé une relation entre capacités mnésiques et incertitude dans une population depatients épileptiques caractérisée par des déficits mnésiques, confirmant ainsi le rôle des capacitésmnésiques dans la survenue de l'incertitude physiologique.Pour l'étude des corrélats neuronaux, nous avons mesuré l'activité électrophysiologique intracérébraledes régions impliquées dans la prise de décision au cours de la tâche d'incertitude, chez des patientsépileptiques pour les structures corticales et chez des patients TOC pour les structures sous-corticales.Nous avons montré que l'incertitude était associée à : 1/ une diminution d’amplitude des potentielsévoqués des régions préfrontales et prémotrices ; 2/ une moindre synchronisation des bandes defréquence alpha et bêta en temps-fréquence ; 3/ une augmentation de l'amplitude des potentielsévoqués dans le noyau sous-thalamique. Nos résultats suggèrent un défaut d'engagement des structurescorticales impliquées dans la prise de décision au cours de l'incertitude. Enfin, notre travail tend àconfirmer le rôle du noyau sous-thalamique dans la physiopathologie du TOC et dans les mécanismessous-tendant l’incertitude pathologique. / Uncertainty is a cognitive process that frequently influences our decisions in everyday life. Inobsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), the high level of uncertainty usually alters the decision-makingprocess.This work aimed to a better understanding of physiological and pathophysiological aspects ofuncertainty, by exploring its relationships with working memory abilities and its neural correlates. Anoriginal task derived from a delayed matching-to-sample task was created with the possibility toexpress felt uncertainty during decision-making. With this "uncertainty task", we demonstrated thatbaseline working memory abilities predicted the occurrence of uncertainty in healthy individualswhereas uncertainty was followed by a decrease in working memory abilities in OCD patients. Therole of working memory abilities in the occurrence of uncertainty was further confirmed in a clinicalpopulation of epileptic patients suffering from baseline working memory impairments.For the study of the neural correlates of uncertainty, we measured intracerebral local field potentials(LFPs) in regions involved in decision-making during the uncertainty task. Cortical and subcorticalLFPs were obtained in epileptic and OCD patients, respectively. We showed that uncertainty wasassociated with: 1/ a decreased amplitude of evoked responses in cortical prefrontal and premotorregions, 2/ a reduced synchronization of alpha-beta frequency bands in time-frequency analyses, 3/ anincreased amplitude of evoked responses in the subthalamic nucleus. Our findings suggested adiminished cortical activation in uncertain decision-making and confirmed the role of the subthalamicnucleus in OCD pathophysiology and in the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of pathologicaluncertainty.

This thesis deals with the complications that brings obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) school-age children in the family and school life. It consists of two parts - theoretical and practical. The theoretical part is divided into the seven chapters and is drawn from the knowledge of professional literature and Internet sources. This section consists of basic information about OCD, the etiology, diagnosis, treatment options. The last three chapters deal with the consequences of obsessive-compulsive disorder and problems that OCD brings to family and school life. The practical part is an empirical investigation dealing with the main objective of the work, which is based on an analysis of complications that brings obsessive-compulsive disorder of school-age children in the family and school life. Survey results was achieved through open, axial and selective coding, which allowed delineation create grounded theory. It was found that OCD manifests in childhood and brings negative consequences not only for family but also for the school life of the child, especially in the form of disturbed domestic atmosphere and the inability to concentrate on teaching.

The main aim of this study was to determine the changes in neuronal activity of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and medial prefrontal cortex (MPC) in rats sensitized to D2/D3 receptor agonist quinpirole (QNP) during exploration of enriched open field arena. During the experiment, the evaluation of behavioural changes induced by quinpirole sensitization were also assessed and compared to previous results. For the purpose of this study, twenty-two adult male Long-Evans rats were used. The half of the rats was sensitized to QNP by receiving daily subcutaneous injections of quinpirole (0,5 mg/kg) while the other half received saline. Both groups were habituated for ten days to open-field arena enriched with two metal objects. The behaviour of animals was videotaped and the data about locomotion and the number of visits of each locale was obtained. On the eleventh day, the part of saline and quinpirole treated groups explored the open-field arena (t = 5 min) while the other two subgroups were left as respective cage-controls. Immediately after the end of experiment, all rats were sacrificed, and the extracted brains were cryopreserved. To determine the changes in neuronal activity of selected brain regions, fluorescence in situ hybridization of immediate early gene Arc was...

Cognitive flexibility can be described as adaptive ability to change one's behavior in response to the environment. Psychological tests measure cognitive flexibility mainly as an ability to switch between different cues, tasks or objects. This thesis is focused on cognitive flexibility in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). To assess it, participants were tested in two different virtual tests of cognitive flexibility in spatial navigation task: Active allothetic place preference and Active allothetic place avoidance. In one of the tests participants have to navigate in rotating arena towads invisble goal (AAPP). In the other one they have to avoid invisible sector where time is counted upon entering (AAPA). As the sector and goal are visually imperceptible, participants have to use only cues inside and outside the arena and are also informed about entering the sector by sound signal. The sector changes its position from stable position in room frame to stable position in arena frame between conditions. Therefore, participants have to learn to switch between room and arena frame to sucessfully solve the task. Results of this study suggest that OCD patients are significantly worse in estimating position of the goal in AAPP, especially after change of condition. Further comparsion of...

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