Printed information access, preferences and use by small-scale farmers in KwaZulu-Natal, who are experimenting with or converting to organic farming, were investigated to establish the need for information on organic production, certification, and marketing. Forty-six resource-poor farmers from four groups at Umbumbulu, Tugela Ferry, KwaMashu and Muden participated in semi-structured group interviews. Guiding questions, information tabulation, ranking and sorting, and voting were used to gather data. Five printed agricultural information materials were evaluated. The findings indicated that the participants trusted and relied on intermediaries for access to innovative, research-based information, and preferred interpersonal communication over other information channels. Printed materials were valued for their permanence, while participants preferred materials in isiZulu as 75% of participants were able to read and write isiZulu or were able to ask family members to read materials in isiZulu. At least one functionally literate farmer was a member of each of the participating farmer groups. Appropriate printed information on organic production, certification and marketing had not reached the participants. Characteristics of printed information materials preferred by participating farmers included: large typeface, photographs, drawings, step-by-step instructions, stories about people and events, context-specific content, the use of plain language in English or preferably isiZulu. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

The 48 members of the Ezemvelo Farmers' Organisation (EFO) in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa (SA), that were fully-certified as organic farmers were surveyed during October-December 2004 to assess their perceived level of satisfaction, trust, cooperation and commitment in a formal supply chain producing amadhumbes (a traditional vegetable tuber), potatoes and sweet potatoes for a major SA supermarket group. Empirical recursive models show that a high level of satisfaction in the working relationship results in these farmers trusting the pack-house agent more. High levels of trust, in turn, lead to higher levels of both commitment to, and cooperation in, the supply chain. A simultaneous-equation model showed that EFO farmers with higher levels of commitment tend to be more cooperative, and that members with higher levels of cooperation tend to be more committed toward the working relationship. These results suggest that strategies to improve the working relationship with the pack-house agent need to promote satisfaction, trust, cooperation and commitment. For example, co-investment in better crop storage facilities at farm-level would promote satisfaction and hence trust. There is also scope for more cooperation in the planning of new organic crop products to grow and market, and to remove some price uncertainty by giving EFO farmers more information about prices that they will be paid by the pack-house agent in this supply chain. In addition, satisfaction and, hence, trust, cooperation and commitment may be improved by adopting a formal contract between the EFO farmers and the pack-house agent to replace the current, incomplete verbal contract that governs trading. Some issues that may be addressed in this contract are improved communication systems via regular meetings, renegotiations of trading terms so that farmers can benefit from positive changes in organic crop prices; guidelines for paying farmers more quickly by the pack-house agent; mechanisms to trace crop quality to a specific farmer to avoid free riding; and penalties for breaching the contractual arrangements. The 48 EFO farmers were also asked to give their perceptions of the main constraints on organic crop production and marketing in the formal organic crop supply chain. They perceived that uncertain climate, unavailability of tractor or draught power when needed, delays in payments for crops sent to the pack-house, lack of affordable inputs (particularly labour and manure), a lack of cash and credit to finance inputs, lack of affordable transport to market crops, more work than the family can handle, a lack of manure to purchase; and a lack of crop storage facilities and telephones to negotiate sales as the current top 10 constraints. Principal Component Analysis summarized the underlying dimensions in the 20 constraints ranked by these farmers as indicating "lack of market information and lack of market power"; "crop production expansion constraints"; "commitment to crop area expansion"; "lack of liquidity"; "lack of proper storage facilities"; and "lack of information about alternative markets". Potential solutions to better manage these perceived constraints include: improved risk management practices (e.g., supplemental irrigation, water-harvesting and small boreholes), improving access to tractor services via improved tractor scheduling or using local contractor services, quicker pack-house delivery payments, improving quality inspection at the departure points at EFO farm-level to reduce crop rejection rates and "free riding" by producers of lower quality organic crops, more interaction with the retailer to promote sales of organic crops, providing advice on how the EFO farmers can improve their bargaining power, and providing more information (e.g. crop prices) about other organic markets and changing consumer preferences. Apparently, the costs and benefits of these potential solutions, and how they will be financed, need to be evaluated. Real accounting marketing margins since 2001 showed that the farmer's share of the consumer's rand for the 48 fully certified organic EFO farmers rose, while their net returns (selling price less accounting costs) were lower than those of the pack-house agent and hawkers selling at the Isipingo market on the South Coast of KZN. Net returns for the 48 EFO farmers also seemed to be relatively higher if they sold through the informal supply chain (hawkers) rather than the formal supply chain. The EFO farmers' net returns may be improved by lowering operating costs and by aggressive marketing to customers willing and able to pay a price premium for organic crops. These farmers may also consider performing some of t he marketing services themselves (e.g. crop cleaning, grading and packaging) if they have the skills and can access more finance. There are, however, hidden benefits from maintaining the formal supply chain relationship, as the pack-house agent helped to secure tractor services and fencing, and facilitates access to the retailer. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

The study aimed to investigate the hygiene quality of fresh agricultural produce, irrigation water and compost from four cooperatives (Jabulani, Nungwane, Senzakahle and Siyazenzela) supplying the uMbumbulu Agri-Hub Non-Governmental Organisation. In addition, the influence that socio-economic characteristics such as age, gender, level of education and training had on the uMbumbulu farmers’ hygienic practices was investigated. Questionnaires, key informant interviews and laboratory analysis were used to collect data. The most probable number (MPN) method, a microbiological technique, was used to quantify selected hygiene indicators (i.e. total and faecal coliforms including Escherichia coli) from compost, irrigation water and leafy vegetables (spinach and lettuce) during the months of October, November and December 2011. Microbiological analysis on lettuce and spinach produced by the four Agri-Hub cooperatives confirmed that these vegetables were safe to eat and unlikely to cause sickness. The irrigation water sources, vegetables and compost faecal coliform levels met national standards with faecal coliforms of <1 000 MPN/100ml for irrigation and<200 MPN/g for the leafy salad vegetables. Compost faecal coliform levels were <1000/g and E. coli levels of <30 MPN/g, these levels decreased over the 3 months. Descriptive statistics such as the Chi-Square test using IBM SPSS and a logistic regression was performed using the STATA 11 software. The sample consisted of 60% female and 40% males, most of which (73%) were above the age of 40. A total of 60% of respondents received income from farming activities, receiving revenues of between R150- R250 a week. The logistic regression indicated that farmers already receiving some income from farming activities and those that had received training on hygienic farming practices were likely to wash hands and equipment prior to entering the field compared to those who had not. These variables influenced the hygienic practices with a probability of 26% and 32% respectively at 5% significance level. The logistic regression also showed that respondents with primary or no formal education were less likely to wash hands and equipment prior to entering the field compared to those who had a secondary level education. This unlikelihood had a probability of 35% for primary education and 43% for farmers with no formal education at significance levels of 5% and 10% respectively. This study indicates how training, education and farming experience are important and effective tools in implementing good hygienic practices in small-scale farming. The study’s main recommendations are that policies encourage farmer awareness on their responsibility of producing vegetables that are of good hygienic quality, especially if such produce is to reach the market. Furthermore policies should advocate for small-scale farmer training. This training should not be limited to subsistence farming but should also aim at preparing farmers towards accessing produce markets. Farmer training in hygienic practices should aid farmers to meet the stringent market standards allowing for better access, the regular income from such activities support farming as a livelihood and bearer of food security. It must also be noted that farmers require support in attaining the various resources needed in order to successfully and continually supply markets. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

The Ezemvelo Farmers’ Organisation (EFO) is a certified organic smallholder group in KwaZulu-Natal province (South Africa) that exists as an institution to improve smallholder access to niche markets by reducing unit production and transaction costs. The study is motivated by the need to understand drivers of collective action, prevalence of internal group free-riding, and the impact of contract terms on contract performance. These three theoretical concepts are pertinent in understanding organisational and institutional issues affecting the performance of smallholder organic farming groups and in formulating policies to promote the performance of such groups. The study relies on the theoretical foundations of collective action, free-riding and contracts found within the realm of New Institutional Economics (NIE). These theories, though separate, are in fact related in certain respects. Collective action in smallholder groups, apart from being a function of a plethora of socio-economic factors, including transaction costs, could be constrained by free-riding within the group, which in turn could be influenced by flawed contractual arrangements. This study of collective action focuses on 200 farmers drawn from a sample survey of 49 non-EFO members, and a census survey of 103 partially certified and 48 fully certified EFO members. A ‘collective action’ model investigates the impact of perceived benefits and savings on production and transaction costs attributed to collective action by drawing comparisons between EFO members and non-members using a multinomial logit model. The study of free-riding uses data from 151 members of the EFO to construct an index of free-riding within the group using principal components analysis (PCA). A ‘contract model’, which also focuses on EFO members only, attempts to measure the impact of verbal contract provisions on contract performance in addition to evaluating the determinants of preferred contract terms using a combination of PCA, Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, and logit models. Results indicate that continued participation in EFO is not influenced by the age or gender of the farmer, but positively influenced by growth in the net benefits of participation, and negatively by an increase in the size of the household’s cropland or on-farm earnings. With respect to production and transaction costs, the results suggest that EFO has reduced fully certified members’ concerns that crops would be damaged by livestock or constrained by inadequate technical information. However, this is not the case for other problems such as price uncertainty in conventional markets, a lack of affordable operating inputs, a lack of affordable transport, and a lack of communications infrastructure. The index of free-riding behaviour constructed using principal components analysis suggests that free-riding poses a serious threat to EFO’s collective marketing efforts. Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis of the index scores shows that members who are male, poorly educated, partially certified, aware of loopholes in the grading system, and who do not trust the buyer are more likely to free-ride. Benefits accruing to EFO members are limited and there is substantial confusion among members about the terms of EFO’s verbal contract with the pack house that purchases their organic produce. Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis of the impact that perceived contractual terms have on quantities delivered to the pack house yielded interesting findings. Perceptions that delivery calls are made by the buyer, that grading procedures are flawed and that prices are not jointly established were found to reduce quantities delivered to the pack house, after controlling for differences in farm and farmer characteristics. Logit models estimated to identify the determinants of preferred contract clauses indicate that farmers with higher levels of formal education and farm income, and lower levels of experience, favour a written contract over a verbal contract. Similarly, farmers with higher levels of formal education and lower levels of family farm labour favour a contract denominated by area rather than weight. It is concluded that EFO should recruit households that rely on farming for income and which are land constrained. EFO is more likely to survive if it continues to secure fully subsidised information, transport, fencing, and certification services for its members, and if it improves the benefits of participating by synchronising harvest and delivery dates, negotiating price discounts for organic inputs, and by maintaining an office with telephone, fax and postal services. In the longer-term, EFO should address institutionalised free-riding by issuing tradable ownership rights. In the short-term, EFO must engage with the pack house (buyer) to remove flaws in the grading process that conceal the origin of low quality produce. Transparent and mediated negotiations leading to an incentive compliant contract with the buyer may also help to build trust and reduce free-riding within EFO. It is also recommended that the terms of EFO’s contract with the pack house should be revised so that; (a) delivery calls can be made by either the pack house or by EFO during specified periods and with reasonable notice, and (b) grading procedures are fully transparent and ensure traceability so that losses caused by poor quality can be internalised to members who deliver inferior produce. In addition, it is important that prices be negotiated at the beginning of each season and that the contractual parties have recourse to pre-agreed facilitators and an arbitrator to resolve disputes on price and quality. A written contract is recommended to support these more complex terms, with the proviso that the contract is explained to current and prospective members, and that growers are fully informed of their rights and obligations. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Organic farming is increasingly viewed as a plausible production system for sustainable agriculture for smallholder farmers. However, there is not enough scientific evidence and knowledge to advocate certified organic farming for African smallholder farmers who face several constraints related to production, storage and marketing. The potential for organic farming for smallholder farmers, faced by these constraints, is not clearly defined. As a result, this study set out to evaluate the production potential of organic agriculture among three smallholder farmer groups. Production questions were used to investigate and evaluate the potential for organic agriculture among three smallholder farmer groups and constituted the following subproblems: · What crops can be grown in the three study areas, based on climatic data ? · Do farmers concur that these are the most suitable potential organic crops? · How useful do the farmers find the decision making tool? · What constraints threaten commercial production of the identified crops for these farmers? Participatory methodologies that included the use of Force Field Analysis, discussions and workshops were used to identify organic production constraints related to production decisions. Farmers faced constraints related to finance, capacity enhancement, technical knowledge, fencing, irrigation, and a lack of, or inappropriately trained extension officers. As a response to identified production constraints, a decision support tool was developed. Natural resource data, including climatic and agronomic data, was used to create a specially calibrated Microsoft Excel spreadsheet interface that functions as an empirical organic production decision support tool for organic and aspirant organic smallholder farmers, by providing answers for farmer-prioritised production constraints. A list of potential crops for each of the three study areas was subjected to a series of checks against suitability for climate and disease conditions and nutrient requirements. A limited supply of manure, to meet the enormously high requirements for organic production in the poor soils of these areas, is the major constraint to exclusive organic production and renders certified organic production difficult and unsustainable. Farmers disagreed with some of the crops on the list, arguing that familiar crops were rejected by the model, but they were excited by the prospects for production of “new” crops suggested as suitable by the decision support tool, but not yet grown in the study areas. End users welcomed the model and expressed the opinion that it would be useful in decision making related to organic crop production. The study concludes that, although a number of agronomically-suitable crops can grow in the study areas, organic production is restricted by rather high manure requirements, lack of compost making skills, lack of knowledge on natural pest and disease control and poorly nourished soils, leading to poor yields. The rainy season creates a disease-supporting environment, rendering organic farming risky for rain-fed smallholder farming. Risk in certified organic farming for smallholders was further exacerbated by a hardly inconducive policy environment that low literacy levels exist amongst farmers. This study is innovative for three reasons. First, farmers were true participants and drivers of the research. Second, trans-disciplinary expert seminars were attended by experts from different disciplines who critiqued the conceptualisation, design, and implementation of the study. Third, the development of a practical decision-support tool shows innovation towards solving complex smallholder farmers decisions. If organic farming is to be promoted, commitment by government is needed in order to establish policy and legislation on organic farming to direct and govern training, information provision and marketing. Intensive training and knowledge building of organic production for smallholder farmers and extension officers is critical. There are also agroecological risks associated with organic farming for smallholder farmers. Recommendations for future research include comparison between organic agriculture and conventional agriculture, where sustainability of certified organic farming and economic viability can be conducted in the South African context. Improvement of the decision making tool will require involving information technology specialists so that the tool can be installed in community centres, extension offices and other accessible places for farmers and others. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

For many poor rural South African communities, involvement in agriculture remains one of their most secure livelihood strategies. For the majority of these people, indigenous knowledge and the use of local materials, resources and skills is often the only asset they possess. The Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation (EFO) from the community of Embo in KwaZulu-Natal is one such group of rural people befitting this description. In the absence of financial resources to purchase relatively expensive agricultural inputs, accompanied by a lack of infrastructural development in their community, EFO farmers have become organic farmers by default. EFO members produce mainly traditional organic crops. However, little has been documented about the potential value of trade in these products. The purpose of this study was to explore potential marketing opportunities for traditional organic products through the mobilisation of indigenous knowledge, skills, and natural resources to improve the livelihoods of EFO members. A research team of three postgraduate students, each involved in his/her own independent study, worked in collaboration to collect relevant research information. Five data collection tools were used to collect this information. These were a household survey, a sustainable livelihoods analysis, a forcefield analysis, a stakeholder analysis, and a workshop. Research results showed that there are five stakeholders involved in EFO activities, each with his/her own personal interests. EFO members mainly produce amadumbe, sweet potatoes, and potatoes, which they market to a packhouse, the local community, and to hawkers. Other crop varieties are produced for household consumption and small quantities are sold to the local community and hawker markets. Farmers obtained a slightly higher price for crops sold to the packhouse as compared to the other two markets. The packhouse was the farmers' largest market for the 2002 season. However, the packhouse market was unsustainable for farmers because of problems due to the delays in payments for produce, the high quantities of crops that are rejected because they did not meet the quality control standards of the packhouse, and problems due to the unreliability of transport from Embo to the packhouse. The majority of EFO members' farms were also found to be unprofitable due to the high costs of inputs and losses to production. Constraints such as a shortage of kraal manure for soil conditioning, unfenced properties, a lack of water for irrigation, and the unavailability of a tractor for ploughing were found to be contributing factors to the unprofitability of member farms. Recommendations for improving marketing and profitability were that projects involving farmers should be regularly evaluated, EFO members seek business management skills, direct contracting agreements with their suppliers, explore value added products, and for Government to play a role for rural enterprise development to take place. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Lack of effective storage facilities to mitigate post harvest losses threatens the profitability of organic farming. In rural KwaZulu-Natal, small scale farmers use traditional storage and sequential harvesting to keep potatoes post maturity while waiting to sell. The effect of these practices on potato quality has not been studied and documented. This study set out to investigate if traditional practices (sequential harvesting and traditional farmer’s store) of the Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation in Umbumbulu affect the quality and marketable quantity of organically grown potatoes. Specifically the study set to investigate the effect of traditional farmer’s store, in situ and controlled storage on the carbohydrate content and sensory quality of potatoes organically grown in Embo by EFO farmers; determine consumer quality expectations of organically and conventionally grown potatoes; investigate the effect of sequential harvesting on the potato quality expectations of consumers and to investigate the produce and income losses experienced by small scale organic farmers at harvest and during storage. Experiments were conducted to compare the effect of sequential harvesting, farmer’s store and controlled cold storage (7oC and 90% relative humidity) on the sensory, appearance and keeping quality of organically grown potatoes. A survey of 100 consumers (40 organic and 60 conventional consumers) was conducted to ascertain consumer appearance and keeping quality expectations of potatoes. In addition, a survey of 101 farmers investigated the storage practices of the EFO farmers who grew potatoes and the type of losses incurred in storage. Preference ranking was used to investigate if time of harvesting post maturity affected potato quality. Produce losses experienced by the farmers were quantified. A co-research group of three seasoned farmers of the EFO participated in the research. They produced potatoes used in the study and provided valuable input to ensure that the study adhered to storage practices of the farmers. The lowest and highest sugar levels were observed in potatoes stored in situ and under controlled conditions, respectively. Potatoes left in situ also recorded higher starch content. Potatoes stored in situ were significantly preferred by sensory panellists (p<0.05) over those stored in both farmer’s store and in controlled storage. Preference rank scores were negatively correlated to total sugar content and positively correlated to starch content. Consumers in the study highlighted five desirable appearance qualities in potatoes: absence of greening, absence of sprouting, smooth skin texture, absence of blemishes and light skin colour. No significant differences in the quality expectations between participating organic and conventional potato consumers were found. The majority of consumers expected potatoes to store for at least three weeks post purchase. Sequentially harvested potatoes met this expectation when potatoes were left in situ for a maximum of six weeks post maturity. Potatoes in situ also maintained good appearance and sensory quality. The highest produce losses were experienced in summer owing to soft rot problems. Production in the drier seasons (autumn and winter) increased the proportions of potatoes too small to be sold as table potatoes. With the exception of completely rotten potatoes, poor quality potatoes were consumed, used as seed potatoes and sold to the local market as seed and for food. Poor potato quality resulted in reduced income for the farmers. This investigation pioneered research into the effect of sequential harvesting on the quality of organically grown potatoes. The findings demonstrate that sequential harvesting provides resource-poor small scale organic farmers with an efficient storage option where other storage methods and technologies may be inappropriate, ineffective or unaffordable. It is recommended that government and other players in the agricultural sector plan initiatives to educate small scale potato farmers on the benefits of sequential harvesting as an effective short term method of potato storage. Research with other potato cultivars in different agro-ecological settings is needed to optimise sequential harvesting. Government policy aimed at training and developing farmer capacity in organic seed potatoes production is essential to ensure that farmers access disease and pest free seed. Farmers also need assistance to access to irrigation resources to improve production. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Historically, South Africans, particularly small-scale farmers have had little support and hence lack tools and information when faced with production decisions. Information plays an important role in enlightening people, raising their level of knowledge and in turn improving their standard of living and participation in decision making process. Research shows that Information Communication Technology (ICT) like Decision support tools (DSTs) plays an important role in systematic dissemination of information in agriculture, thus improving the quality of farmers’ decisions. Decision support tools provide up-to-date data, procedures and analytical capacity leading to better-informed decisions, especially in rural areas. A body of research is emerging around issues of effectiveness of DSTs for farmers in the developed world. However, few studies have focused on issues around effectiveness of these tools for farmers in the developing world, particularly for resource-limited farmers. This study set out to evaluate the effectiveness of a new DST for organic and small-scale farmers with a group of extension officers and researchers in KwaZulu-Natal. As an extension to the DST, a crop disease management component linked to the DST was developed. The study also set to evaluate the effectiveness of the crop disease management component. Extension officers and researchers were purposively selected for this study because both groups play a major role as far as organising and disseminating information to organic and small-scale farmers is concerned. This study identified key measures for effectiveness of DSTs and crop disease management guides using literature from the study. Two frameworks for measuring effectiveness were developed to evaluate the effectiveness of the new DST and its crop disease management component with the extension officers and researchers. Focus group discussions were used for data collection. The frameworks were used as a base for the focus group discussions. Focus groups were conducted to explore and establish whether in the light the groups (extension officers and researchers), the new DST and its crop disease management component are effective. Results from the study revealed that extension officers and researchers felt that the DST and its crop disease management component are effective since they meet key measures for effectiveness identified in the framework. The groups agreed that the DST and its crop disease management component are relevant to small-scale farmers. They also agreed that the DST has the ability to improve access to information for small-scale farmers. Lastly, they also agreed that the DST and its crop disease management component are transparent (meaning flexible and user friendly) for small-scale farmers. Some of the areas for improvement identified by the groups included a need for information on pests and more diseases for the DST and the crop disease management component. Although the groups felt that both the DST and crop disease management were effective, they strongly recommended a need for another study that will aim at developing a pest management component of the DST as this was clearly requested by groups in this study. Results of this study showed that half the respondents felt that the DST was easy enough to be used by small-scale farmers without help from extension officers, while the other half believed that small-scale farmers will still need the help of extension officers to show them how to use the DST. Government and other relevant institutions need to provide appropriate training for these farmers, making the DST useful to them. / Thesis (M.Agric)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.