Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The order Orthoptera contains a wide diversity of species and is the most speciose of the polyneopteran insect lineages. In South Africa, the orthopteran fauna is abundant and diverse, with approximately 88% of all Southern African species occurring in the region. One highly endemic and conservationally important group, the Pneumoridae (commonly known as bladder grasshoppers), is recognized as being an evolutionary distinct lineage, with all species occurring either fully or partially within South Africa. Unfortunately, the understanding of the true extent of diversity for this paleo-relictual group is hampered by inaccuracies in current taxonomic descriptions and the lack of adequate survey data. The last taxonomic revision was undertaken >50 years ago, during which several taxonomic discrepancies and uncertainties were introduced, particularly within the genus Bullacris. Specimens may be difficult to classify due to significant morphological overlap between species, geographic variation within species, and confusion arising from alternative male morphs being designated as separate species rather than conspecific within existing species. Furthermore, paleo-relictual insects are of great evolutionary and biogeographical interest by virtue of being survivors of highly derived lineages, which allows for insights into the paleo-history and phylogenetic diversity of a region. Thus, the aims of this research were, firstly, to investigate the biogeographic patterns of diversity for South African Orthoptera and to place the Pneumoridae family into this context, secondly, to construct a molecular phylogeny for the Pneumoridae and estimate divergence times by genetically analysing the relationships between Pneumoridae species, and lastly, to update taxonomic descriptions in the genus Bullacris. Biogeographic analyses were performed by making use of a national orthopteran database created from historical and current collecting records, and performing hierarchical cluster analyses to delimit zoogeographic regions and centres. A dated phylogeny was created by extracting DNA from fresh and museum specimens, and generating Bayesian Inference, Maximum Likelihood and BEAST phylogenetic trees for the Pneumoridae family. The updated revision of the genus Bullacris included morphological, acoustic and genetic comparisons. Results from the biogeographic analyses showed that there was a clear east (summer-rainfall) and west (winter-rainfall) primary biogeographic division for orthopteran species, which has also been previously noted for other insect taxa. Six zoogeographic centres were retrieved: the Central Nama-Karoo, the Cape Fynbos and the Succulent Karoo centre located in the west and the Savanna, the South-East Tropical and the Indeterminate Summer-Rainfall centre located in the east. Orthopteran species richness was found to be evenly distributed throughout the bladder grasshoppers diverged from other orthopteran species during the early Cretaceous period, at an estimated 134.70 MYA. The first group to have diverged within the pneumorid family were the Forest species at approximately 116.91 MYA, followed by the Fynbos, the Succulent Karoo and then the Savanna species groups. It is suggested that bladder grasshoppers originated in South Africa and dispersed northward due to climatic changes. In addition, the phylogeny of the family showed that the species Physemacris variolosa integrated with members from the Bullacris genus. Lastly, the taxonomic revision of the Bullacris genus indicated that B. discolor and B. serrata were acoustically and morphologically similar, and had relatively low mitochondrial pairwise variation, and could thus possibly be represent sub-species. In addition, B. membracioides and B. intermedia were acoustically similar and also had low mitochondrial pairwise distances; however, statistical analyses showed significant morphological differences. Therefore, there was insufficient combined evidence to amalgamate species. Nevertheless, there are several environmental factors that could explain these variations, and it is therefore suggested that additional data is required to solve these taxonomic discrepancies. The results derived from this research have provided interesting insights into the evolutionary history of the Pneumoridae, the environments in which they occur, and share with other orthopteran species. Together with the newly discovered phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic studies, this information is useful data for conservation management strategies and expands our knowledge on the evolutionary histories of South Africa’s entomofauna.country; however, the Cape Fynbos centre has representatives for most orthopteran families. The dated phylogenetic analyses revealed that

No description available.

Os gafanhotos da família Proscopiidae são caracterizados pelo corpo delgado e pela cabeça alongada. A situação taxonômica do grupo sempre foi confusa devido ao fato da maioria das espécies terem sido descritas apenas com base em caracteres da morfologia externa, os quais apresentam muito pouca variação e são pouco informativos. O gênero Tetanorhynchus era, até o início do presente estudo, um dos mais numerosos da família, sendo formado por trinta e uma espécies. Contudo, nunca havia sido realizada uma revisão que considerasse todas as espécies do gênero em conjunto e que incluísse uma análise detalhada dos caracteres genitais masculinos e femininos. Para o presente estudo, foram reunidos 311 exemplares provenientes de diversas instituições, os quais incluíam os exemplares-tipo de todas as 15 espécies descritas por Piza e Wiendl, tidos como perdidos até então. Os tipos das outras 16 espécies foram analisados através de fotografias, ilustrações e descrições. Como resultado do presente estudo, o material examinado foi separado em 16 espécies. A espécie-tipo de Tetanorhynchus, T. punctatus, mostrou-se bastante distinta das outras espécies aqui reconhecidas. Scopaeoscleratoscopia simplex foi sinonimizada sob T. punctatus, o que levou à sinonímia de Scopaeoscleratoscopia sob Tetanorhynchus. A maior parte das outras espécies foi sinonimizada sob outras espécies conhecidas ou transferida para outros gêneros. Foram ainda estabelecidos dois gêneros novos para acomodar as espécies que apresentavam características distintas daquelas encontradas nos outros gêneros conhecidos para a família e que não poderiam mais ser classificadas em Tetanorhynchus sensu nov. No total, foram propostas 24 novas sinonímias e 10 novas combinações. / The grasshoppers of the family Proscopiidae are easily characterized by the slender body and the elongated head. The taxonomy of the group is confusing since most of the species descriptions were based upon only the external morphology, which exihibits little variation and very few informative characters. Before the present study, the genus Tetanorhynchus Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1890 was among the most numerous of the family, with 31 species. Nevertheless, a revision of the genus taking into account all these species with a detailed analysis of male and female genital characters had never been accomplished. For the present study, a total of 311 specimens from several institutions were assembled, including type-specimens of all the 15 species described by Piza and Wiendl, which were considered lost until then. The types of the other 16 species were analysed through photographs, illustrations and original descriptions. As a result of this study, the examined material was classified into 16 species. The type-species of Tetanorhynchus, T. punctatus (Klug, 1820), is very different from the others species recognized here. Scopaeoscleratoscopia simplex Jago, 1989 was synonymized under T. punctatus, which resulted in the synonym of Scopaeoscleratoscopia Jago, 1989 under Tetanorhynchus. Most of the other species were synonymized under other known species or transferred to other genera. Two new genera were defined to include species with distictive characters from those found in other genera of the family and that could not be assigned to Tetanorhynchus sensu nov. In total, 24 new synonyms and 10 new combinations were proposed.

No description available.

Os gafanhotos da família Proscopiidae são caracterizados pelo corpo delgado e pela cabeça alongada. A situação taxonômica do grupo sempre foi confusa devido ao fato da maioria das espécies terem sido descritas apenas com base em caracteres da morfologia externa, os quais apresentam muito pouca variação e são pouco informativos. O gênero Tetanorhynchus era, até o início do presente estudo, um dos mais numerosos da família, sendo formado por trinta e uma espécies. Contudo, nunca havia sido realizada uma revisão que considerasse todas as espécies do gênero em conjunto e que incluísse uma análise detalhada dos caracteres genitais masculinos e femininos. Para o presente estudo, foram reunidos 311 exemplares provenientes de diversas instituições, os quais incluíam os exemplares-tipo de todas as 15 espécies descritas por Piza e Wiendl, tidos como perdidos até então. Os tipos das outras 16 espécies foram analisados através de fotografias, ilustrações e descrições. Como resultado do presente estudo, o material examinado foi separado em 16 espécies. A espécie-tipo de Tetanorhynchus, T. punctatus, mostrou-se bastante distinta das outras espécies aqui reconhecidas. Scopaeoscleratoscopia simplex foi sinonimizada sob T. punctatus, o que levou à sinonímia de Scopaeoscleratoscopia sob Tetanorhynchus. A maior parte das outras espécies foi sinonimizada sob outras espécies conhecidas ou transferida para outros gêneros. Foram ainda estabelecidos dois gêneros novos para acomodar as espécies que apresentavam características distintas daquelas encontradas nos outros gêneros conhecidos para a família e que não poderiam mais ser classificadas em Tetanorhynchus sensu nov. No total, foram propostas 24 novas sinonímias e 10 novas combinações. / The grasshoppers of the family Proscopiidae are easily characterized by the slender body and the elongated head. The taxonomy of the group is confusing since most of the species descriptions were based upon only the external morphology, which exihibits little variation and very few informative characters. Before the present study, the genus Tetanorhynchus Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1890 was among the most numerous of the family, with 31 species. Nevertheless, a revision of the genus taking into account all these species with a detailed analysis of male and female genital characters had never been accomplished. For the present study, a total of 311 specimens from several institutions were assembled, including type-specimens of all the 15 species described by Piza and Wiendl, which were considered lost until then. The types of the other 16 species were analysed through photographs, illustrations and original descriptions. As a result of this study, the examined material was classified into 16 species. The type-species of Tetanorhynchus, T. punctatus (Klug, 1820), is very different from the others species recognized here. Scopaeoscleratoscopia simplex Jago, 1989 was synonymized under T. punctatus, which resulted in the synonym of Scopaeoscleratoscopia Jago, 1989 under Tetanorhynchus. Most of the other species were synonymized under other known species or transferred to other genera. Two new genera were defined to include species with distictive characters from those found in other genera of the family and that could not be assigned to Tetanorhynchus sensu nov. In total, 24 new synonyms and 10 new combinations were proposed.

This thesis set out to examine the soils, plants, lichens, invertebrates and common skinks along a gradient of habitat modification. This gradient was represented by ten study sites, of varying management histories, in a mid altitude tall tussock (Chionochloa spp.) grassland in eastern Central Otago. One extreme of the gradient was represented by intact tall tussock plants with a high density of inter tussock vegetation. The other extreme was represented by intensively managed exotic pasture. Native plants, invertebrates and reptiles were present along the entire gradient of modification and there was a clear threshold in the diversity of native plants along the gradient. This threshold was reached after the management practice of ploughing was applied to a site. Sites that had not been ploughed were found to be similar in their native plant diversity, and all unploughed sites had significantly higher native plant diversity than unploughed sites. There was considerable variation in the abundance of individual plant and Coleoptera species along the modification gradient. The most intensively modified sites had the lowest plant diversity, the lowest abundance and diversity of Orthoptera, as well as the lowest abundance of common skinks. Sites with low levels of modification contained a higher abundance of common skinks, and, native forbs, lichens and bryophytes than the more intensively modified sites. With regard to individual plant and Coleoptera species recorded, there were generally not clear thresholds for their presence and absence along the modification gradient. Rather, there was a gradual turnover for most species along the gradient such that the plant and Coleoptera community at opposing ends of the gradient had less species in common sites of similar modification levels. A high proportion of the Coleoptera species observed were present in all sites, suggesting that disturbance has selected for an adaptive generalist life trait, and that the species remaining comprise the resilient portion of the Coleoptera fauna. The relationship between Coleoptera communities and the gradient of modification was scale dependent, with the strongest relationship being observed at the largest scale measured. The hypothesis that faunal diversity and abundance would be best predicted by the structural diversity of the vegetation rather than by plant species diversity was tested. Structural diversity was strongly correlated (p < 0.01) with Coleoptera diversity, and Coleoptera abundance whereas plant species diversity was not. However, plant species diversity was a stronger correlate of common skink abundance than plant structural diversity. The structural diversity of the vegetation has the potential to be measured remotely and could be a correlate for faunal diversity and abundance when undertaking landscape scale studies. This thesis demonstrates that native biota exists within the agricultural environment of the mid-altitude tall tussock (Chionochloa rigida) grasslands of eastern Central Otago despite intensive modification in some areas. The findings suggest that it is possible to integrate the objectives of agriculture and the conservation of some faunal groups especially for the more resilient species. However, this study also indicates that relatively unmodified sites are valuable reservoirs of biodiversity in the mid altitude zone and it is recommended that the limited number of lightly modified sites that remain in the mid altitude zone be conserved.

Sinefungin inhibited the S-adenosylmethionine-dependent farnesoic acid methyltransferase in a cell-free system containing a homogenate of corpora allata from female locusts, Locusta migratoria. The enzyme catalyzed the penultimate step of juvenile hormone biosynthesis in the insects. Culturing corpora allata in the presence of sinefungin greatly suppressed juvenile hormone production. The following in vivo effects were visible after injection of the inhibitor: increase in mortality and reduction of total haemolymph protein liter and ovary fresh weight, as well as length of terminal oocytes. Attempts to reverse these effects by topical application of the juvenile hormone analog ZR-515 (methoprene) were only partly successful. Therefore, the in vivo effects may be due to a general inhibition of methyltransferase enzymes in the insect. Sinefungin appeared to be of potential interest as the first representative of a new class of insect growth regulators.

Tallgrass prairie restoration is an important conservation activity in rural areas. However, little is known about prairie restoration in urban environments. The overall objective of this study was to characterize and better understand urban prairie restoration. This was carried out through an examination of 29 restoration sites within Winnipeg, Manitoba. The results indicated that actively restored urban prairies were successful and high in diversity. Multiple attributes of the restorations were examined as indicators of success including vegetation, the propagule bank and insects. However, not all attributes delivered equivocal results. This suggests that multiple measures should be used to assess a restoration site. Anthropogenic and biophysical variables were found to influence vegetation of the restorations equally, highlighting the importance of incorporating a human component in urban ecological research. These urban restorations were seen to surpass larger rural restorations in quality; thus, efforts should be made to increase their prevalence. / February 2008

Tallgrass prairie restoration is an important conservation activity in rural areas. However, little is known about prairie restoration in urban environments. The overall objective of this study was to characterize and better understand urban prairie restoration. This was carried out through an examination of 29 restoration sites within Winnipeg, Manitoba. The results indicated that actively restored urban prairies were successful and high in diversity. Multiple attributes of the restorations were examined as indicators of success including vegetation, the propagule bank and insects. However, not all attributes delivered equivocal results. This suggests that multiple measures should be used to assess a restoration site. Anthropogenic and biophysical variables were found to influence vegetation of the restorations equally, highlighting the importance of incorporating a human component in urban ecological research. These urban restorations were seen to surpass larger rural restorations in quality; thus, efforts should be made to increase their prevalence.

Tallgrass prairie restoration is an important conservation activity in rural areas. However, little is known about prairie restoration in urban environments. The overall objective of this study was to characterize and better understand urban prairie restoration. This was carried out through an examination of 29 restoration sites within Winnipeg, Manitoba. The results indicated that actively restored urban prairies were successful and high in diversity. Multiple attributes of the restorations were examined as indicators of success including vegetation, the propagule bank and insects. However, not all attributes delivered equivocal results. This suggests that multiple measures should be used to assess a restoration site. Anthropogenic and biophysical variables were found to influence vegetation of the restorations equally, highlighting the importance of incorporating a human component in urban ecological research. These urban restorations were seen to surpass larger rural restorations in quality; thus, efforts should be made to increase their prevalence.