Thesis (M.S. in Astronautical Engineering)--Naval Postgraduate School, Dec. 2004. / Thesis Advisor(s): Sherif Michael. Includes bibliographical references. Also available online.

Space technologies are becoming increasingly indispensible for modern societies and militaries around the globe, through a heightened dependency on satellite based services. At the same time, anti-satellite weapons are being developed and tested with the capacity to attack and destroy a satellite with precision. In the light of this development, the legal uncertainty on what rules apply to belligerent use of force in the realm of outer space is problematic. Since dual-use satellites do not enjoy explicit special protection in international law, it is relevant to clarify what legal protection they do hold, being objects enabling indispensable societal services. Would state practice and hostile space conduct prevail clarification, a fatal international custom might develop, and the difficulty of reaching agreements regulating attacks on satellites, along with other hostile behavior, enhanced. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate what the current frameworks of space law and international humanitarian law provide in terms of restraints to states’ legal possibilities to attack dual-use satellites in times of armed conflict. It is concluded that both frameworks do hold restrictions respectively. Though, the need for regulation is still evident in order to achieve a clear and foreseeable legal reality along with a sustainable future of space exploration where international peace and security can be maintained.

This research report examines the potential nature of property rights in space and the need for the development of a cogent framework for the allocation of such rights, within the parameters set by the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. This was done in an effort to avoid the dichotomous commons dilemmas of, the tragedy of the commons, as described by Hardin (1968), and the tragedy of the anti-commons, as described by Heller (1998),(2013), whilst endeavouring to encourage the investment in and the development of, space and its resources by private operators. A review of existing literature across a diverse set of academic fields including economics, space law, and commons dilemmas, led to the development of an a priori framework for the allocation of functional property rights in space. The framework was specifically based on the work of Nobel Prize Winner Elinor Ostrom’s principles for sustainable governance of common pool resources (CPR), the observations on the nature of the anti-commons, as described by Michael Heller and the theory of the decentralisation of governance structures through the polycentric design of governance frameworks. The validity of the proposed a priori framework was tested through in depth interviews with experts in space law, policy development and space related industries. Through the reviewed literature and evidence gathered by this research, it was evident that the debate around the potential nature of property rights in space is still unresolved. However, a consensus view emerged amongst the respondents, that the bundle of functional property rights and roles proposed in the a priori framework were valid and feasibly legal, under the current OST treaty regime, with the exclusion of the polycentric design for the allocation of rights within the framework. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / lmgibs2014 / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / MBA / Unrestricted

Title of the thesis in English Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and its implementation in Czech Republic Abstract This thesis deals with the international responsibility of the state for national activities in outer space, and more specifically with issues related to such responsibility as the interpretation of Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and its implementation in national legislation, especially in the Czech Republic. The aim of this work is to comprehensively describe and then analyse the legal regime of space law, focusing on Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and its effects on legal regulation in the Czech Republic. The first and second parts of the thesis present the general theory and development of space law, together with the presentation of the responsibility of the state under international public law, and in this case also subsequently described with reference to space law. The third part of the thesis focuses on the creation of Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and analyses its provisions. It raises its issue, in particular, the vagueness of the terms contained in the article and this, consequently, constitutes a difference of interpretation of that article. This part also addresses the links of Article VI to Articles VII and VIII of the Outer Space Treaty. The fourth part...

[Legal regulation of space objects] Abstract The space sector has experienced an unprecedented boom in recent years. The number of launched space objects is constantly rising, and new technology allows people to reach outer space much more efficiently than before. At the same time, private companies have taken interest into outer space and are looking for ways to generate profit from the final frontier. But how are issues related to the outer space and cosmic objects addressed legally? Where does outer space begin and what can be defined as a cosmic object? Although the space shuttle took off into an orbit like a rocketship, it returned to the Earth's atmosphere like an airplane. So, will it be space or aerial object? Or maybe both? There are many interesting and complex issues associated with space law and space objects. However, international treaties that form the basis of space law went into force more than 50 years ago. Will those legal institutes that were created in a completely different geopolitical situation be obsolete? Does current space law give us satisfactory answers to questions of jurisdiction or liability for damage caused by space objects? The diploma thesis tries to find answers to these, and other questions related to space law in the context of space objects. At the same time, however,...

L’immatriculation des satellites est une procédure issue du droit international spatial, et en particulier de l’article VIII du Traité sur l’espace de 1967 et de la Convention relative à l’immatriculation des objets spatiaux de 1975. De nombreux États en précisent le champ, les modalités et la portée dans leur droit national. C’est le cas de la France, qui prévoit ce mécanisme dans sa « Loi relative aux opérations spatiales » de 2008 et ses textes d’application. L’immatriculation établit un lien de rattachement entre un État et un objet spatial, et c’est en particulier les satellites actifs qui font l’objet de la présente analyse. Ce lien de rattachement est attributif de la « juridiction et du contrôle » sur l’objet, expression dont il fallait cerner le sens précis. Synonyme de compétence dans un sens général, elle n’en renvoie pas moins à un devoir d’encadrement technique des activités dans l’espace de la part de l’État qui y procède. Ceci permet de préserver l’une des normes fondamentales du droit de l’espace, la liberté d’accès à l’espace extra-atmosphérique par tous les États. Le fait de mettre en place ces normes permet d’éviter que ces activités, intrinsèquement dangereuses, ne soient dommageables. Cette liberté d’accès à un espace non soumis à un titre de compétence territorial est un corollaire de la souveraineté de l’État. Cette liberté ne va pas sans difficultés. L’évolution des activités dans des espaces partagés, tels que l’espace extra-atmosphérique, la haute mer ou l’espace aérien surplombant cette dernière y contribue. Elle s’intensifie. L’espace extra-atmosphérique est de plus en plus utilisée. Le secteur spatial fournit en effet des services très demandés, et désormais indispensables à la société. On pense en particulier à la télédétection, aux télécommunications et aux systèmes de positionnement. De ce fait les satellites participent du mouvement de digitalisation de l’économie. L’espace peut donc être considéré comme un ressource rare, comme l’est déjà le spectre radioélectrique, indispensable aux communications avec les satellites. Dans un environnement de plus en plus concurrentiel, la tendance à optimiser le choix du droit applicable peut être un facteur d’économie, parfois au détriment de la sécurité des activités.Le droit maritime connait ce phénomène, avec les pavillons de complaisance. L’évolution des activités spatiales doit de ce fait prendre ce risque en compte. Dans ce cadre l’immatriculation est un mécanisme fondamental. D’une part, pour des raisons de sûreté matérielle. Il permet en effet d’assurer que le satellite sera opéré sous la surveillance d’un État. Si ce mécanisme ne peut pour l’instant que difficilement être contourné du fait de la responsabilité qui s’attache au statut d’Etat de lancement, il faut néanmoins soulever que celui-ci est un héritage des premiers temps des activités spatiales, qui ne correspond que peu avec la dynamique actuelle de ces activités. D’autre part, pour des raisons d’applicabilité du droit aux espaces numériques. En effet les satellites sont des infrastructures numériques, considérant le caractère fluide de ces activités, c’est bien le contrôle sur l’infrastructure qui constitue la dernière garantie de l’applicabilité du droit. / Satellites registration is a mechanism of international space law. Article VIII of the 1967 Space Treaty and the 1975 Convention on the Registration of Space Objects are the two main treaties establishing it. Many States specify its scope, modalities and range in their national legislations. This is the case of France, which provides for this mechanism in its municipal law on space operations of 2008 and its implementing texts. Registration establishes a link between a State and a space object. In particular, the functioning satellites are the subject of this analysis. This connecting link attributes "jurisdiction and control" over the object, the meaning of which was to be understood. It can be asserted as a synonymous with competence in a general sense. Nonetheless, it also refers to a duty of technical supervision of activities in outer space from the State, which proceeds to the registration. This preserves a fundamental norm of outer space law, the freedom of access to outer space by all States. Putting these standards in place prevents these inherently dangerous activities from being harmful. This freedom of access to an area not subject to territorial jurisdiction is a corollary of the sovereignty of States. This freedom does not come without challenges. The evolution of activities in shared spaces, such as outer space, the high seas or the airspace above it contributes to the phenomenon of intensification of uses. Outer space knows indeed a more and more intense utilization. The space sector provides high-demand services, which are now essential to society. In particular, we can mention remote sensing, telecommunications and positioning systems. As a result, satellites are part of the digitization movement of the economy. Outer space is therefore be considered as a scarce resource, as is already the radio spectrum, essential for communications with satellites. In an increasingly competitive environment, the tendency to optimize the choice of the applicable law can be a saving factor, sometimes to the detriment of the safety of the activities. Maritime law knows this phenomenon with flags of convenience. The evolution of space activities must therefore take this risk into consideration. In this context, registration is a fundamental mechanism. On the one hand, for reasons of material safety. It makes it possible to ensure that the satellite operator is under State supervision. While this mechanism cannot for the moment be easily circumvented by the responsibility attached to the status of launching State, it must nevertheless be pointed out that it is a legacy from the earliest days of space activities. It does not quite correspond to the current dynamics of these activities. On the other hand, for reasons of applicability of the law to digital spaces. Indeed satellites are digital infrastructures. Considering the fluid nature of these activities, it is the control over the infrastructure that constitutes the last guarantee of the applicability of the law.

This thesis argues for a critical examination of the published writings of Le Sony'r Ra, also known as Sun Ra, a groundbreaking jazz musician and philosopher of the 20th century. Recent redistribution of Sun Ra's musical output, which includes hundreds of releases on many record labels from the 1950's onward, has prompted a critical renaissance towards his influence on jazz orchestration, band management, do-it-yourself ethics, and structured improvisation In spite of this resurgence of interest in his music, his written corpus has failed to produce a comparable level of criticism or discussion. It is my firm belief that it is the body of work's relative scarcity in print, not its value as literature, that has kept the material underground for such a lengthy period of time. With the recent republication of Sun Ra's daunting body of poetry and prose, the discovery of early manuscripts, and the surfacing of relevant critical essays, the time has come to analyze his poetic position within the context of African-American philosophical thought. / Master of Arts

The Outer Space Treaty established the obligation to provide continuing supervision of its national space activities by the appropriate state. The implementation of this obligation remains a matter of state discretion. Since this Treaty came into force the world has evolved to become reliant on space based utilities to enable the global economy and state governance. Today, space faring states are increasingly dependent upon the supervision practices of other states to assure its space interests as the attribution of state responsibility becomes more difficult to ascribe. / Therefore, the absence of binding supervision standards may become an impediment to future space applications due to three identified trends. First, the trend towards space commercialization requires active state supervision. Second, the rise in environmental hazards requires minimal safety standards to decrease the harmful effects on space applications. Third, space security requires identification of intentional acts and prudent measures to safeguard vital space applications.

Outer Space Activities & Environmental Protection Abstract This thesis aims at addressing various connecting factors between outer space activities and environmental protection. It examines the present legal regime of the outer space with particular regard to the environmental protection. The analysis of the most relevant space treaties is provided, reviewing the provisions concerning the protection of the environment, while addressing the emerging environmental issues. The significant role of international bodies is being emphasized, as well as the current challenges the regime of outer space is facing. Although the space-related activities offer an extensive tool to enhance environmental protection of Earth, the environment of space is nowadays being exposed to an imminent threat called space debris, which could prevent all possible future space activities if left unattended. The pollution of the space environment is at a critical level, and the international community is required to respond within a short time in the future. The introduction of mitigating efforts will no longer itself be effective without the addition of active employment of remediating measures, such as the active debris removal. On the other hand, space activities already widely contribute to preserving the environment of Earth...

This diploma thesis applies the well-established concept of security dilemma to the relatively new domain of outer space. It constructs a comprehensive modification of the concept for the outer space - the space security dilemma - and establishes criteria for the assessment of it while also discussing previous approaches. The thesis then applies this concept and established criteria, to the issue of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). More specifically, it focuses on the case of the European GNSS called Galileo and assesses the intentions behind its creation. Through this assessment, the thesis focuses on determining whether the European Union became a space security dilemma initiator by the development of the Galileo system. In order to confront the theoretical conclusions with praxis, the thesis then focuses on the case of the United States of America and the confrontation between GPS and Galileo. In its last chapter, the thesis replicates this approach on the cases of the Russian Federation (and its GLONASS) and the People's Republic of China (and its BeiDou/COMPASS).