Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the US. The American Academy of Dermatology estimated that more than 3.5 million new cases of skin cancer are diagnosed in the US each year and 1 in 5 Americans will likely to develop skin cancer in their life time. Most cases of skin cancer are caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Some of the most common sunscreen ingredients are unstable and can form harmful radicals upon exposure to UV radiation. There is a strong clinical need for a more stable and effective sunscreen ingredient such as bovine milk phospholipids (MP). Phospholipids were shown to have beneficial health effects such as regulation of the inflammatory reactions, protective effects against colon cancer, and reducing cardiovascular risk factors. Previous histology and MTT tissue viability research studies suggested that MP act upon skin cells in a protective manner against UV radiation. This thesis aims to further investigate the protective effects of bovine milk phospholipids by evaluating the expression of a UV-induced DNA damage marker, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p21WAF1/CIP1. Western blots were used to quantify p21 expression in human keratinocytes in four categories of samples: No-UV, UV, UV+MP, MP and in HeLa (p21 positive control). In the No-UV samples, cells were not irradiated by UV light. However, in the UV samples, keratinocytes were exposed to a UV dosage of 10 mJ/cm2. In the UV+MP samples, keratinocytes were first treated with 1% MP solution (w/v) in their culture media for 24 hours then exposed to a UV dosage of 10 mJ/cm2. In MP, keratinocytes were treated with 1% MP solution in their culture media for 24 hours. Total cell proteins were extracted 24 hours post-UV irradiation. The same amount of protein from each sample (determined by BCA assay) was loaded into a 4-12% Bis-Tris SDS-PAGE gel, run under denaturing, non-reducing conditions then blotted and treated with antibodies for the quantitative detection of p21 proteins. Finally, intensities of p21 protein bands were analyzed by using ImageJ software. Under non-reducing conditions, three p21 proteins covalently bonded with each other showed up as 63 KDa molecules on the PVDF membrane. The UV, and HeLa samples showed a 2.28 fold, and 1.23 fold increase in p21 expression, respectively, compared with the No-UV samples control. The MP samples showed a 0.948 fold decrease in p21 compared with the No-UV samples, and the UV+MP samples showed only a 1.13 fold increase in p21. When comparing with the UV sample, the UV+MP sample has 50.4% less p21 expression. Less p21 expression in the UV+MP sample compare with the UV sample suggested that less DNA damage occurred in the sample that was treated with milk phospholipids. This result strongly suggests that 1% bovine milk phospholipids can protect skin cells from UV induced DNA damage.

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation has been demonstrated in numerous studies to be a major risk factor for non-melanoma skin cancer development. Despite the emergence of current UV-preventative strategies, such as sunscreens and skin-protective clothing, the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer has continued to rise. This has encouraged investigations on alternative methods for UV prevention. In particular, bovine milk sphingomyelin has been studied for its potential in protecting human skin against UV photodamage. While the previous studies have suggested that sphingomyelin exhibits UV-protective properties in a human skin equivalent model, the exact mechanisms behind sphingomyelin’s photoprotective effects are yet unknown. This thesis aims to further investigate the UV-protective effects of sphingomyelin in normal human epidermal keratinocytes, using nuclear p21 expression as a marker for UV photodamage. Keratinocytes were incubated for 24 hours in a 0.1% sphingomyelin solution and then exposed to 40mJ/cm2 of 302nm UV radiation. After 24 hours of post-UV incubation, nuclear p21 expression was evaluated using immunofluorescence. Confocal images were analyzed for their mean nuclear p21 fluorescence intensity measured in grayscale (0-255). Keratinocytes treated with sphingomyelin showed approximately a 50% decrease in UV-induced mean nuclear p21 intensity compared to keratinocytes with no sphingomyelin treatment (via Tukey’s test; p

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La connaissance des mécanismes qui contrôlent la transcription des gènes, comme l’interaction de facteurs protéiques au niveau des promoteurs, est essentielle pour comprendre plusieurs fonctions biologiques et espérer traiter certaines pathologies. Nous nous sommes attardés à mieux comprendre les mécanismes qui régulent trois gènes humains dont les patrons d’expression sont différents et qui sont impliqués dans diverses pathologies en tentant de mettre en parallèle les différences structurales et fonctionnelles entre ceux-ci. Les gènes AβPP et p21 sont exprimés chez l’adulte alors que GPC3 est exprimé uniquement chez l’embryon de façon spécifique aux tissus. L’expression d’AβPP est aussi spécifique aux tissus et sa surexpression fait partie des mécanismes mis en cause chez les patients atteints de la maladie d’Alzheimer et du syndrome de Down. Le gène p21 est quant à lui exprimé dans plusieurs types cellulaires et est fortement induit suite à des dommages à l’ADN. Enfin, nous avons montré que GPC3 est exprimé de manière différentielle dans le neuroblastome (NB) et la tumeur de Wilms (WT), deux tumeurs embryonnaires. p21 : La caractérisation du promoteur proximal de p21 dans les fibroblastes humains normaux en prolifération nous a permis de localiser sept empreintes protéiques dont une au niveau de la séquence consensus pour NFI. Les études de retard sur gel, de transfection transitoire, d’immunoprécipitation de la chromatine et d’anti-ARN ont permis de confirmer la liaison de NFI et de le définir comme répresseur important de la transcription de p21. AβPP : Nous avons montré que USF et Sp1 se lient au promoteur de AβPP et que leur liaison est essentielle pour générer une activité maximale du promoteur. La caractérisation in cellulo du promoteur dans les neurones et les astrocytes normaux a révélé huit sites d’interaction ADN-protéine, entre-autres au niveau des sites de liaison des facteurs de transcription CTCF, USF et Sp1. GPC3 : La caractérisation du promoteur de GPC3 nous a permis de montrer 1) une struture chromatinienne particulière tout le long du promoteur et 2) plusieurs empreintes protéiniques putatives dont certaines spécifiques à la lignée SJNB-7 qui exprime GPC3. Parmi ces dernières, nous avons mis en évidence la liaison possible d’un facteur de transcription de type NF-Y. / Gene transcription is the first step to the production of any given protein. Understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating gene expression, such as the binding of transcription factors to genes promoters, is essential to the understanding of biological functions and to develop new powerful therapies against many clinically documented pathologies. We investigated the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of three human genes very differently expressed and involved in diverse pathologies in an attempt to reveal structurals and functionals differencies between these mechanisms. AβPP and p21 genes are both expressed in adult while GPC3 is only transcribed in a tissus specific manner before birth. The expression of the AβPP gene is also specific to tissue and its over-expression may be involved in Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome. P21 gene is expressed in many types of cells and is strongly induced by DNA damage. Finally, we demonstrated that GPC3 is differently expressed in neuroblastoma and Wilms' tumor. P21 : The characterization of the proximal promoter from the p21 gene in normal human proliferating fibroblasts revealed seven DNA-protein footprints of which one bears a perfect consensus sequence for the NFI family of transcription factors. EMSA, CHIP, anti-RNA and transient transfection of recombinant constructs analyses clearly demonstrated that NFI interact with the most proximal LMPCR footprint on the p21 promoter and functions as a repressor. Upon serum starvation, a change in the electrophoretic mobility of the NFI DNA-protein complex was observed that may contribute to the activation mechanistic of the p21 gene throughout cell senescence and differentiation. AβPP : We demonstrated that Sp1, like USF, recognizes an element in the human AβPP gene that is necessary for full promoter activity. In cellulo footprinting analysis revealed at least eight DNA-protein interactions including CTCF, USF and many Sp1 target sites. These results were further supported by EMSA and transient transfection analysis. GPC3 : The characterisation of the entire GPC3 gene promoter revealed 1) a particular DNA structure in the promoter and 2) eight large protected regions. The use of competitor oligos in EMSA experiments and super-shift assays showed that an NFY-type transcription factor (TF) may explain the GPC3 aberrant expression in SJNB-7.

京都大学 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(生命科学) / 乙第13582号 / 論生博第29号 / 新制||生||68(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院生命科学研究科高次生命科学専攻 / (主査)教授 今吉 格, 教授 見学 美根子, 教授 安原 崇哲 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy in Life Sciences / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Neuroblastoma (NB) is a childhood cancer with a highly complex nature. High-risk NB patients undergo intensive treatment regimens that are often followed by long-term side effects. This, in addition to the emergence of resistant cancer cells, highlights a need for novel therapeutic targets and treatment strategies to improve outcome in NB. P21 is a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor considered to play a role in tumor resistance and aggressiveness due to its involvement in cell cycle and/or apoptosis. This project aimed to explore the expression of endogenous p21 in high-risk NB cell lines and whether p21 could be a therapeutic target for high-risk NB. Endogenous p21 levels were investigated using RT-qPCR and quantitative immunocytochemistry in eight high-risk NB cell lines. A small molecular inhibitor of p21, UC2288, was used in these cell lines to investigate tumour cell viability following p21 inhibition. In addition, combination treatment with UC2288 and the chemotherapy drug cisplatin was performed on resistant NB cell lines. Our results show variable expression of p21, where cell lines with high endogenous p21 expression showed sensitivity to single agent treatment with cisplatin or UC2288. Moreover, resistant NB cell lines showed lower endogenous p21 expression, however, combination treatment with UC2288 and cisplatin showed reduced viability, indicating sensitivity to combination treatment. This project highlights the potential of using p21 as a therapeutic target as well as a predictive biomarker in high-risk NB.

Raisonnement: Les mécanismes post-transcriptionnels occupent une place importante au sein de la régulation de l’expression génique. L’expression génique est cruciale au bon développement de la cellule, mais également à sa survie. L’altération des mécanismes post-transcriptionnels fait maintenant l'objet de nombreuses études sur la cause ou la conséquence de différentes pathologies humaines telles que le cancer. Récemment, les Granules de Stress (GS) ont été trouvées à agir comme un nouveau mécanisme post-transcriptionnel, qui permet à la cellule de survivre en conditions de stress. Résultats: Notre étude démontre pour la première fois, la formation de GS dans les cellules cancéreuses traitées avec un agent chimiothérapeutique. De cela, nous avons élucidé un sentier spécifique de formation des GS en réponse au Bortézomib (Bz). Nous avons montré que cet inhibiteur de protéasome réduit l’initiation de la traduction via la phosphorylation du facteur de l’initiation de la traduction (eIF2). Cette phosphorylation d’eIF2 se produit via l’activation de la kinase de stress HRI (Heme-Regulated kinase). La suppression de la voie de phosphorylation d’eIF2-GS via la déplétion de HRI favorise une mort cellulaire accrue chez les cellules cancéreuses traitées au Bz. Ces données révèlent donc un rôle important pour HRI dans la résistance des cellules cancéreuses face au Bz, en partie par l’entremise de sa capacité à réguler la formation de GS. Pour faire suite à cette étude, nous décrivons que le facteur anti-apoptotique p21 est séquestré à l’intérieur des GS qui sont induites par le Bz. L’emprisonnement de l’ARNm p21, hautement instable, à l’intérieur des GS permet à cet ARNm d’être protégé, stabilisé et donc accumulé. Nous démontrons que la protéine de liaison à l’ARN, CUGBP1, est responsable de la localisation de l’ARNm p21 à l’intérieur des GS en réponse au Bz. Après un traitement prolongé de Bz, les GS sont désassemblées et ainsi relâchent une grande quantité d’ARNm p21 qui devient alors disponible pour être traduite. Cette traduction massive de p21 apporte alors un élan anti-apoptotique à la cellule cancéreuse ce qui lui permet de survivre au traitement chimiothérapeutique de Bz. Conclusions et perspectives: En somme, ces études décrivent une nouvelle voie spécifique de survie cellulaire qui implique un rôle potentiel pour les GS dans le cancer et qui pourrait être ciblée en thérapie. En perspective, des tumeurs xénogreffes chez la souris seront utilisées pour tester si (i) la suppression des GS via l’inactivation de HRI, et (ii) l’inactivation de la voie CUGBP1-p21, qui est régulée par les GS, sensibiliseraient les tumeurs au Bz, validant ainsi notre modèle in vivo. Ces études apporteraient des preuves de concept pour le développement de nouvelles stratégies ciblant les voies associées au GS et qui pourraient être utilisées en thérapie combinatoire pour diminuer le risque de résistance face au traitement de Bz. / Rationale: Post-transcriptional mechanisms play an important role in the regulation of gene expression. Gene expression is crucial for the proper development of the cell but also for its survival. The alteration of post-transcriptional mechanisms is now the subject of numerous studies on the cause, or on the consequence, of various human diseases such as cancer. Recently, Stress Granules (SG) have been found to act as a new post-transcriptional mechanism, which allows the cell to survive in stress conditions. Results: Our study demonstrates for the first time, the formation of SGs in cancerous cells, in response to a chemotherapeutic agent. From this we have elucidated a specific pathway of SG formation in response to Bortezomib (Bz). We demonstrate herein that this proteasome inhibitor reduces translation initiation via the phosphorylation of the initiation factor (eIF2). This phosphorylation of eIF2 is controlled through the activation of the heme-regulated kinase (HRI). The alteration of the pathway phospho-eIf2-SG, through depletion of HRI, causes massive cellular death in Bz treated cancerous cells. These data thus reveal a crucial role for HRI in the resistance of cancerous cells against Bz, in part via its capacity to regulate SG formation. Furthermore, we describe the anti-apoptotic factor p21 to be trapped inside Bz-SGs. This sheltering of the highly unstable p21 mRNA allows this one to be protected from degradation, which can be stabilized and accumulated. We also demonstrate, herein, that the RNA-binding protein CUGBP1 acts as a factor responsible for the localization of the p21 mRNA inside Bz-SGs. After prolonged treatment of Bz, SGs disassemble and release a high dose of p21 mRNA that becomes available for translation. This massive translation of anti-apoptotic p21 gives a boost to the cell that allows it to survive the stress. Perspectives and Conclusion: In sum, our studies describe a new specific pathway of cell survival that implies a potential role for SGs in cancer, which could be targeted in therapy. In perspective, xenograft tumors in mice will be used to test if (i) the inhibition of SG formation via the inactivation of HRI, and (ii) the inactivation of the CUGBP1-p21 pathway that is regulated by SGs, can both sensitize tumors to Bz treatment thus validating our model in vivo. These studies will provide us with a proof of principle for the development of new strategies targeting SG-associated pathways. Combinatorial therapies implicating the termination of such pathways could be developped in order to reduce the risk of recurrence against Bz.