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A new ‘transparent soil permeameter’ has been developed to study the mechanisms occurring during internal erosion in filter materials for embankment dams. Internal erosion or suffusion is the process where fine particles are removed from a matrix of coarse grains by seepage of water, and which ultimately leads to instabilities within the soil. The laboratory-based experiments in this thesis utilises a novel approach where up-scaled glass particles are used in place of soil particles, and optically matched oil is used in place of water. Rhodamine dye in the oil allows the fluid to fluoresce brightly when a sheet of laser light is shone through the sample, while the glass particles appear as dark shadows within the plane of the laser sheet. This technique is known as Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence (PLIF) and enables a two-dimensional "slice" or plane of particles and fluid to be viewed inside the permeameter, away from the permeameter walls. During a test, fluid is passed through the solid matrix in upward flow, with the flow rate (therefore hydraulic gradient) being increased in stages until internal erosion or bulk movement of the entire assembly develops and progresses. A high speed camera captures images of the two-dimensional plane over the duration of a test, which are then analysed using Image Pro and ImageJ processing software. Until now, the fundamental mechanisms that lead to internal erosion have been rather speculative, as there has been no way to physically observe the processes behind the initiation and continued movement of particles. This visualisation experiment allows internal erosion mechanisms to be studied away from permeameter walls where boundary effects do not occur. The technique was validated by confirming Darcy’s (1856) law of laminar flow, and Terzaghi’s (1925) theoretical critical hydraulic gradient for an upward flow through materials with no top stress. Results of replicated materials tested by Skempton and Brogan (1994) and Fannin and Moffat (2006) also confirm this methodology to be valid by way of material behaviour, permeability and the alpha factor (Skempton & Brogan 1994). An assessment to predict the stability of soils was carried out using the Kenney and Lau (1985), Kezdi (1979), Burenkova (1993), Wan and Fell (2008) and Istomina (1957) approaches, with the Kenny and Lau and Kezdi methods proving to be the most robust across the particle size distributions tested. In the tests, unstable materials showed a migration of fine grains under hydraulic gradients as low as ic = 0.25, while stable materials showed little movement of particles, and eventually failed by heave. Image processing using Image Pro and ImageJ were successful in producing quantitative results, however with further enhancements to the test equipment and methodology, these could be improved upon. The testing technique developed in this thesis has proven to be successful in the study of internal erosion of filter materials. The technique proves that optically matched glass and oil can behave similarly to soil and water materials as used in previous laboratory testing, and that the PLIF technique and image capturing has merit in understanding the mechanisms occurring during internal erosion processes.

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In this work, turbulent premixed combustion was analyzed through CH (methylidyne) planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF). Flame topography measurements in terms of flame surface density and curvature were calculated based on the flame front detected by the CH PLIF signal. The goal of this work was to investigate turbulent flames with extremely high turbulence intensity using a recently developed HiPilot burner (a Bunsen-type burner). The studies were first conducted on a series of piloted jet flames to validate the methodology, and then conducted on the highly turbulent flames generated by the HiPilot burner. All flames were controlled by combusting methane and air under a fuel to air equivalence ratio of Φ=1.05, and the Reynolds number varied from 7,385 to 28,360. Flame surface density fields and profiles for the HiPilot burner are presented. These flame surface density measurements showed an overall decrease with height above the burner. In addition, curvature statistics for the HiPilot flames were calculated and probability density functions of the curvature samples were determined. The probability density functions of curvature for the flames showed Gaussian-shaped distributions centered near zero curvature. To conclude, flame topography measurements were verified on jet flames and were demonstrated on the new HiPilot flames. / Master of Science / Optical diagnostics are powerful techniques that enable the study of turbulent flames without physical interruption. The optical diagnostic technique in this thesis implemented planar laser induced fluorescence. In planar laser induced fluorescence, a laser is used to excite a specific molecular species present within a two-dimensional plane in the flame. The excited species releases the extra energy by emission of light which is the signal captured on a camera. One useful purpose of using optical diagnostics, such as planar laser induced fluorescence, is the ability to image the flame structure of turbulent flames. The flame structure is significant for two reasons. First, the flame structure details how the chemistry of the flame interacts with the turbulent flow field. Second, the flame structure is directly related to the burning rate of the reactants. The primary contribution of this thesis investigated the two-dimensional flame structure of a newly designed burner named the HiPilot burner. However, in order to strengthen the fidelity of the methods for determining certain flame structure quantities a precursive analysis on the classical jet flame was completed. The results acquired show structural measurements of the HiPilot flames which contribute to the repository of data for the combustion community

Ce travail vise la description fine du mélange et en particulier du micro-mélange. Afin de caractériser le micro-mélange, les réactions chimiques se sont révélées être l'outil le plus ingénieux (Dimotakis, 2005). Pourtant, à cause des difficultés expérimentales, très peu de telles études existent. Ainsi, nous caractérisons le micro-mélange dans un écoulement dont le motif de base est un jet cisaillé entouré de 4 jets à contre courant. Nous nous intéressons à deux géométries : une pour un fort taux de confinement et une seconde pour laquelle le taux de confinement reste faible. Le premier objectif de cette thèse est de fournir une base de données fiable, pour différentes géométries d'écoulement, nombre de Reynolds et variation du taux de confinement des jets. Dans une première étape, le mélange est étudié grâce à des mesures simultanées de vitesse et de concentration sur la molécule d'acétone. La mesure de concentration est faite grâce à une méthode de Fluorescence Induite par Plan Laser, et la vitesse est estimée par Vélocimétrie par Image de Particules. Une seconde étape se focalise sur le micro-mélange qui est quantifié expérimentalement par une méthode de mesure dite "Dual Tracer" qui compare le signal de fluorescence d'une molécule traçant les zones de fluides pur à celui du fluide dans sa globalité. Le second objectif est d'utiliser cette base de données afin d'étudier l'influence du nombre de Reynolds et du taux de confinement sur la qualité du mélange et l'efficacité du micro-mélange en terme de statistiques. Il est montré que l'efficacité du micro-mélange augmente lorsque le nombre de Reynolds augmente, et lorsque le taux de confinement diminue.

Les performances des bassins de stations d'épuration sont directement liées au transfert d'oxygène de bulles d'air généralement insufflées par des aérateurs vers des micro-organismes capables de détériorer certains polluants des eaux usées. Une prédiction précise du transfert de matière de l'oxygène dans ces bassins reste toutefois encore délicate. L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer des outils d'analyse aux interfaces afin de mieux appréhender localement les différents mécanismes régissant le transfert de matière gaz/liquide. Cette simplification se base sur l'étude du transfert d'oxygène : (i) pour une bulle millimétrique isolée, (ii) dans un liquide au repos, (iii) sans particules solides (système diphasique). À l'aide de techniques de visualisation, il est possible d'évaluer l'influence de la composition de la phase liquide sur le coefficient de transfert côté́ liquide par PLIF (Fluorescence Induite par un Plan Laser) et sur le comportement hydrodynamique de la bulle (diamètre, vitesse, forme) par caméra rapide. L'influence du diamètre de la bulle sur le transfert de matière visualisé est également évaluée. Le coefficient de transfert côté liquide n'étant pas le seul paramètre représentatif du transfert de matière, des techniques expérimentales spécifiques sont développées afin d'estimer avec précision le coefficient de diffusion de l'oxygène dans la phase liquide d'intérêt ainsi que sa concentration à saturation au travers d'une interface gaz/liquide plane en cellule de Hele-Shaw. Via ces différentes techniques expérimentales développées durant la thèse, une cartographie précise de l'influence de la phase liquide sur le transfert d'oxygène est établie en évaluant dans un premier temps l'influence de certains composants isolés (sel, glucose, alcool, tensio-actifs, médicaments, etc.). Ainsi, il sera observé que certains composants, comme les tensio-actifs, peuvent fortement diminuer le transfert de matière. Les corrélations généralement utilisées afin de caractériser ce transfert de matière ne parvenant pas toujours à représenter de telles diminutions, ces résultats seront par la suite comparés à ceux obtenus dans des eaux de stations d'épuration afin d'approfondir la compréhension des différents mécanismes limitant ce transfert d'oxygène / The performance of tanks in sewage treatment plants is highly related to the oxygen transfer from air bubbles, usually injected through di��users, to microorganisms able to degrade pollutants contained in wastewaters. However, characterizing accurately the oxygen mass transfer in such processes is still a challenging issue mainly because of the liquid phase complexity. The aim of this PhD manuscript is to develop specific techniques to better understand the various mechanisms that locally govern the gas/liquid mass transfer process. This study focuses on the oxygen mass transfer, (i) from a single bubble, (ii) rising in a stagnant liquid, (iii) free from solid particles (biphasic system). Efficient visualization techniques allow the impact of the liquid phase composition on the liquid- side mass transfer coefficient (using PLIF (Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence)) and on the bubble hydrodynamic behavior (bubble diameter, shape, velocity) using high-speed cameras to be evaluated. Moreover, the impact of the bubble diameter on the mass transfer visualized is considered. Since the liquid-side mass transfer coefficient is often not sufficient to fully characterize mass transfer, specific experimental techniques, based on planar gas/liquid interfaces in Hele-Shaw cells, are proposed to estimate the diffusion coefficient of oxygen and the oxygen saturation concentration in several liquids of interest. Using the visualization techniques developed during this PhD thesis, the impact of the liquid phase on the oxygen mass transfer is evaluated by introducing different compounds in the liquid phase (salts, glucose, alcohol, surfactants, drugs, etc.). It is interesting to note that some compounds, such as surfactants, can drastically bother the oxygen mass transfer. Since the correlations classically used to characterize mass transfer cannot explain such performance degradation, the results obtained (with liquids whose composition is known) are finally compared to those obtained with wastewater from sewage treatment plants to better understand the factors that can alter the oxygen mass transfer

Les contacteurs centrifuges, basés sur les écoulements de Taylor-Couette, sont bien adaptés pour la mise en œuvre de réactions chimiques ou biochimiques, y compris en milieu polyphasique. Ils possèdent particulièrement plusieurs propriétés favorables à la mise en œuvre des opérations d'extraction liquide-liquide. Un dispositif expérimental a été conçu avec cette idée en tête. Il est constitué de deux cylindres concentriques avec le cylindre intérieur entraîné en rotation et l'externe fixe. L’écoulement de Taylor-Couette se produit dans l’espace annulaire entre eux. Il présente la particularité d’évoluer vers la turbulence par apparition successive d’instabilités. La dispersion axiale ainsi que le mélange, sont extrêmement sensibles à ces structures d’écoulement, ce qui rend difficile la modélisation du couplage entre l’hydrodynamique et le transfert de matière. Ce point particulier a été étudié expérimentalement et numériquement. L’écoulement et le mélange ont été caractérisés par des mesures simultanées de PIV (Vélocimétrie par Imagerie de Particules) et PLIF (Fluorescence Induite par Laser). Les champs de concentration PLIF ont permis d’identifier les différents mécanismes de transport intra et inter-vortex. Pour les régimes ondulatoires (WVF et MWVF), le mélange intra-vortex est contrôlé par l’advection chaotique, directement lié aux caractéristiques du champ de vitesse, qui confère aux vortex une capacité plus importante à convecter et à étirer les filets de fluide. En revanche, l’apparition des vagues brisent les frontières qui séparent les vortex ce qui favorise le transport inter-vortex. La combinaison de ces deux mécanismes contrôle principalement la dispersion axiale. Nous avons également mis en évidence le comportement non monotone des propriétés de mélange en fonction de l’histoire de l’écoulement. Notamment l’état d’onde (la longueur d’onde axiale et l’amplitude de la vague). Nous avons calculé le coefficient de dispersion axiale Dx à l’aide des mesures de distribution de temps de séjour (DTS) et de suivi Lagrangien de particules (DNS). Les deux résultats numériques et expérimentaux ont confirmé l’effet significatif des structures de l’écoulement et de l’histoire sur la dispersion axiale. / Taylor-Couette flows between two concentric cylinders have great potential applications in chemical engineering. They are particularly convenient for two-phase small scale devices enabling solvent extraction operations. An experimental device was designed with this idea in mind. It consists of two concentric cylinders with the inner one rotating and the outer one fixed. Taylor-Couette flows take place in the annular gap between them, and are known to evolve towards turbulence through a sequence of successive instabilities. Macroscopic quantities, such as axial dispersion and mixing index, are extremely sensitive to these flow structures, which may lead to flawed modelling of the coupling between hydrodynamics and mass transfer. This particular point has been studied both experimentally and numerically. The flow and mixing have been characterized by means of flow visualization and simultaneous PIV (Particle Imaging Velocimetry) and PLIF (Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence) measurements. PLIF visualizations showed clear evidences of different transport mechanisms including « intravortex mixing » and « inter-vortex mixing ». Under WVF and MWVF regimes, intra-vortex mixing is controlled by chaotic advection, due to the 3D nature of the flow, while inter-vortex transport occurs due to the presence of waves between neighbouring vortices. The combination of these two mechanisms results in enhanced axial dispersion. We showed that hysteresis may occur between consecutive regimes depending on flow history and this may have a significant effect on mixing for a given Reynolds number. The axial dispersion coefficient Dx evolution along the successive flow states was investigated thanks to dye Residence Time Distribution measurements (RTD) and particle tracking (DNS). Both experimental and numerical results have confirmed the significant effect of the flow structure and history on axial dispersion. Our study confirmed that the commonly used 1-parameter chemical engineering models (e.g. the « well-mixed stirred tanks in serie » model) are not valid for Taylor-Couette reactors modelling : two parameters are at least required for an efficient description of mixing in Taylor-Couette flows.

Le travail présenté concerne l'étude des instabilités thermo-acoustiques apparaissant dans une chambre de combustion aéronautique. Le montage expérimental permet de faire varier continument les fréquences de résonances et de passer pour une même condition d'écoulement, d'un régime de combustion stable à un régime instable. La caractérisation complète d'un cas instable comprend une mesure des conditions acoustiques aux limites du banc, une analyse du comportement des phases liquide et évaporée, de celui du dégagement de chaleur instationnaire et une mesure de la fonction de transfert de la flamme. Ces travaux ont mis en évidence trois phénomènes jouant sur l’injection cyclique de carburant liquide. Les temps caractéristiques des différents phénomènes intervenant dans le couplage thermo-acoustique et une distribution spatiale de l'indice de Rayleigh sont présentés. / The purpose of this experimental study was to further our understanding of the fuel spray behavior during combustion instability phenomena in combustion chambers. An aeronautical injection system with dual kerosene lines was mounted on the LOTAR setup, which was equipped with an adjustable exhaust length. Stability maps were generated by varying the global equivalent ratio and the fuel split parameter, for two Inner Exhaust Lengths (IEL). A non-unique multiphase flow condition was found to produce stable and unstable combustion for different IELs. Each configuration was fully characterized. Acoustic boundary conditions were measured using the 2-microphone technique. Different optical techniques were used toanalyze the unsteady behavior of the liquid phase, fuel vapor, and heat release. Moreover, two techniques were exploited to study the Flame Transfer Function using velocity measurement supstream and downstream of the injection device. Altogether, these results highlighted three atomization phenomena occurring during the cycles of thermo-acoustic instabilities. The phase-averaged analysis applied on the different measurements permitted to determine thetime scales associated with each process appearing in the thermo acoustic coupling. This cyclic injection of liquid fuel into the chamber was followed by a vapor phase increase corresponding to a wave of equivalent ratio. The delay between the two phenomena was of10°. In addition, OH* emissions showed a cyclic behavior following these waves. The delay between the wave of equivalent ratio and the unsteady heat release was approximately of 25°.Finally, spatial distribution of the Rayleigh index revealed that the inner recirculation zone contributed to sustain the combustion instability.

La combustion diphasique implique de nombreux phénomènes physiques complexes, comprenant l'atomisation, la dispersion, l'évaporation et la combustion. Bien que la simulation numérique soit un outil performant pour aborder ces différentes interactions entre les phases liquides et gazeuses, la méthode doit être validée par des études expérimentales fiables. Par conséquent, des données expérimentales précises sur la structure de la flamme et sur les propriétés de la phase liquide et gazeuse le long des étapes d'évaporation et de combustion sont nécessaires. La complexité des configurations aéronautiques réelles implique d'étudier l'effet des propriétés locales sur la dynamique des flammes pour une configuration canonique. Ce travail, réalisé dans le cadre du projet ANR TIMBER, a pour objectif d'améliorer la compréhension de la combustion en flux diphasique, ainsi que de produire une base de données efficace et originale pour la validation des modèles utilisés dans les LES. / Liquid fuels are the primary energy source in a wide range of applications including industrial and residential furnaces, internal combustion engines and propulsion systems. Pollutant emission reduction is currently one of the major constraints for the design of the next generation combustion chamber. Spray combustion involves many complex physical phenomena including atomization, dispersion, evaporation and combustion, which generally take place simultaneously or within very small regions in the combustion chambers. Although numerical simulation is a valuable tool to tackle these different interactions between liquid and gas phases, the method needs to be validated through reliable experimental studies. Therefore, accurate experimental data on flame structure and on liquid and gas properties along the evaporation and combustion steps are needed and are still challenging. A joint effort between numerical and experimental teams is necessary to meet tomorrow's energy challenges and opportunities. The complexity of the real aeronautical configurations implies to study the effect of local properties in flame dynamics on a canonical configuration, which presents the essential feature of very well defined boundary conditions. This work, carried out within the framework of the ANR TIMBER project, aims to improve the understanding of two-phase flow combustion, as well as to produce an efficient and original database for the validation of the models used in LES.