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Numerous studies have investigated how bulk lipid metabolism is influenced in obesity and in particular how the composition of triglycerides found in the cytosol change with increased adipocyte expansion. However, in part reflecting the analytical challenge the composition of cell membranes, and in particular glycerophospholipids, an important membrane component, have been seldom investigated. Cell membrane components contribute to a variety of cellular processes including maintaining organelle functionality, providing an optimized environment for numerous proteins and providing important pools for metabolites, such as choline for one-carbon metabolism and S-adenosylmethionine for DNA methylation. Here, I have conducted a comprehensive lipidomic and transcriptomic study of white adipose tissue in mice that become obese either through genetic modification (ob/ob genotype), diet (high-fat diet) or a combination of the two across the life course. Specifically, I demonstrated that the changes in triglyceride metabolism that dominate the overall lipid composition of white adipose tissue were distinct from the compositional changes of glycerophospholipids. These latter lipids became more unsaturated to maintain the fluidity and normal function of the membrane in the initiation of obesity but then turned saturated after long-term administration of HFD and aging. This suggests that while triglycerides within the adipose tissue may be a relatively inert store of lipids, the compositional changes occur in cell membranes with more far-reaching functional consequences in both obesity and aging. The two-phase change of phospholipids can be correlated well with transcriptional and one-carbon metabolic changes within the adipocytes. The transcriptomic study demonstrated that the lipid metabolic pathways regulated by the peroxisome, AMPK, insulin and PPARγ signaling were activated in the initiation of obesity but inhibited in the adipose tissue of old ob/ob mice along with up-regulated inflammation pathways. The brown and white adipose tissue of PPARα-knock-out mice were also studied by lipidomic tools to get a deeper understanding of the effect of the peroxisome and PPAR system on adipose tissue and lipid metabolism during obesity. Most of the lipids were increased and became more saturated and shorter in adipose tissues of PPARα null mice, which is in good accordance with the results of the former animal study. In conclusion, my work using different rodent models and multi-omics techniques demonstrated a protective metabolic mechanism activated in the initiation but impaired at the end of the processes of obesity and aging, which could be an explanation of the similarity of obesity and aging in terms of high incidence of the metabolic syndrome and related diseases.

The main focus of this project was to optimize a protocol for small molecule ligand co-purification from an in-vivo tissue source. For this purpose, I employed a transgenic zebrafish line called the pLT-gypsy, which expresses a fusion protein containing a tagged-NR LBD (Tiefenbach et al., 2010). The particular line I used to optimize the ligand identification protocol is the pLT-PPARγ zebrafish line, which expresses the tagged-PPARγ receptor's LBD (also called PPARγ-fusion protein). By using rosiglitazone (a known PPARγ ligand) as a positive control, I managed to optimize a protocol to purify the PPARγ-fusion protein and identify the co-purified ligand by mass spectrometry. This protocol can be used to identify the physiological/endogenous ligand for the PPARγ receptor as well as other orphan NRs. Compared to previous methods of ligand identification, this method allows for the identification of the ligand from the tissues where it is functional.

The main focus of this project was to optimize a protocol for small molecule ligand co-purification from an in-vivo tissue source. For this purpose, I employed a transgenic zebrafish line called the pLT-gypsy, which expresses a fusion protein containing a tagged-NR LBD (Tiefenbach et al., 2010). The particular line I used to optimize the ligand identification protocol is the pLT-PPARγ zebrafish line, which expresses the tagged-PPARγ receptor's LBD (also called PPARγ-fusion protein). By using rosiglitazone (a known PPARγ ligand) as a positive control, I managed to optimize a protocol to purify the PPARγ-fusion protein and identify the co-purified ligand by mass spectrometry. This protocol can be used to identify the physiological/endogenous ligand for the PPARγ receptor as well as other orphan NRs. Compared to previous methods of ligand identification, this method allows for the identification of the ligand from the tissues where it is functional.

Hypertension is the number one cause of death worldwide. Low-grade inflammation has been identified as one of the mechanisms contributing to blood pressure elevation and remodeling of the vasculature in hypertension. Mechanisms involved in vascular inflammation and hypertension remain elusive. Vasoactive peptides such as endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (Ang II), oxidative stress and infiltration of immune cells are increased in cardiovascular tissues of hypertensive individuals. Since the vasculature is a major regulator of blood pressure levels, the hypothesis has been proposed that vascular inflammatory responses contribute to development of hypertension. / Objectives of this thesis were 1) to investigate the role of T cells in development of vascular inflammation observed in genetically hypertensive rats, 2) to identify vascular sources of reactive oxygen species production in mineralocorticoid-induced hypertension and 3) to study the effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma activators on vascular pro-inflammatory signaling pathways in Ang II-induced hypertension. / The first study that is part of this thesis shows that the transfer of chromosome 2 from normotensive to hypertensive rats reduces plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, expression of adhesion molecules and infiltration of T cells in aorta as well as resulting in lower blood pressure levels. These effects are accompanied by increased regulatory T cell mediators. We discovered that regulatory T cells are regulated by chromosome 2 and may be responsible for reducing inflammatory responses in hypertensive rats. / The second study of this thesis demonstrates in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats that superoxide (·O2-) production originates in part from xanthine oxidase activity induced by the ET-1 system and from mitochondrial sources, particularly complex II of the respiratory chain. We thus have uncovered two sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can stimulate inflammatory responses in hypertension, since vascular ·O 2- production in this model was shown to induce vascular inflammation. / The third study of the thesis shows that activators of PPAR-gamma reduce blood pressure levels and signaling pathways including Akt/PKB, SHIP2, ERK1/2, 4E-BP1 in aorta and resistance arteries in Ang II-induced hypertension. PPARy acts as an anti-inflammatory transcription factor, and the present study suggests that Ang II down-regulates PPAR-gamma activity to exert its pro-inflammatory effects. / In conclusion, by targeting inflammatory mediators, it may be possible to reduce blood pressure levels in hypertensive animals. This suggests that inflammatory responses may play a crucial role in development of high blood pressure.

Submitted by Anderson Silva (avargas@icict.fiocruz.br) on 2012-11-30T11:59:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 fabio_p_m_santos_ioc_bcm_0037_2011.pdf: 10305796 bytes, checksum: 74de5b830c8354cd532f74bd40993c6a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2012-11-30T11:59:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 fabio_p_m_santos_ioc_bcm_0037_2011.pdf: 10305796 bytes, checksum: 74de5b830c8354cd532f74bd40993c6a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil. / Durante a resposta alérgica, dentre os vários mediadores inflamatórios de natureza lipídica, a prostaglandina D2 (PGD2) é considerada um mediador-chave. Em adição aos seus conhecidos efeitos quimiotáticos para eosinófilos, recentemente, foi descrito que a PGD2 é também capaz de promover a ativação dos eosinófilos, induzindo a biogênese de corpúsculos lipídicos e a síntese de leucotrieno C4 (LTC4) nessas organelas recém-formadas. Esses efeitos são atribuídos a ação da PGD2 sobre seus 2 receptores – DP1 e DP2 – os quais encontram-se expressos de maneira constitutiva na membrana dos eosinófilos. Então, o objetivo principal do estudo foi identificar o receptor específico da PGD2 envolvido no mecanismo de síntese de LTC4 por eosinófilos estimulados com PGD2. In vivo, num modelo murino de pleurisia alérgica e induzida por PGD2, a utilização dos antagonistas seletivos do receptor DP1 (BW A868c) ou do receptor DP2 (CAY10471) inibiu a síntese de LTC4 nessas respostas inflamatórias. No entanto, somente BWA868C foi capaz de inibir a biogênese de corpúsculos lipídicos nos eosinófilos recrutados para o sítio inflamatório; enquanto que o tratamento com o CAY10471, diminuiu o número de eosinófilos infiltrantes na cavidade pleural, mas não inibiu a biogênese de corpúsculos lipídicos nessas poucas células recrutadas. In vitro, eosinófilos humanos purificados estimulados com PGD2 tiveram a síntese de LTC4 inibida tanto pelo pré-tratamento com BWA868c, quanto pelo prétratamento com CAY10471. Além disso, a ativação do receptor DP1, com seu agonista seletivo (BW245c) e a ativação do receptor DP2 com o agonista seletivo do receptor DP2 (DK-PGD2) corroborou a observação de que no processo de síntese de LTC4 nos eosinófilos, ambos os receptores são necessáior, pois somente quando ambos os receptores foram ativados simultaneamente foi observada síntese de LTC4 nos corpúsculos lipídicos recém-formados (Eicosacell). Além disso, caracterizamos que uma das vias de sinalização intracelular envolvida na formação de corpúsculos lipídicos é depende da ativação de proteína quinase A (PKA). Em um outro grupo de ensaios, investigamos a PGD2 como potencial alvo terapêutico em doenças alérgicas. Recentemente, foi descrito que o extrato aquoso de C. sympodialis e a warafteína (alcalóide isolado) têm propriedades antialérgicas, visto que não somente reduzem a eosinofilia, mas também, a biogênese de corpúsculos lipídicos, assim como a produção de leucotrienos cisteinados. Dessa forma, aqui demonstramos que os pré-tratamentos tanto com o extrato quanto com o alcalóide isolado, foram capazes de inibir a produção de PGD2 ocorrida durante a resposta alérgica. In vitro, embora a warafteína não tenha inibido a biogênese de corpúsculos lipídicos em eosinófilos induzida por PGD2, observamos que é capaz de bloquear a liberação de PGD2 por mastócitos ativados – mas, não a produção de PGE2 por macrófagos ativados com A23187 – demonstrando que o mecanismo de ação dos seus efeitos antiinflamatórios não parecem envolver antagonismo de receptores em eosinófilos, e sim inibição da síntese da PGD2 em sítios alérgicos. / During allergic response, among several lipid mediators produced, prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) has emerged as key mediator. In addition to its known eosinophilotatics effects, recently PGD2 was described to be able to promote eosinophil activation, inducing lipid bodies biogenesis and LTC4 synthesis within these newly formed organelles. These effects are attributed to the action of PGD2 on its 2 receptors – DP1 e DP2 – which are expressed constituvely on eosinophil cell membranes. So, the main objective of this study was to identify the PGD2 specific receptor involved in LTC4 synthesis mechanism by stimulated eosinophils with PGD2. In vivo, in a murine allergic model of pleurisy and in a pleurisy induced by PGD2, the use of selective DP1 receptor (BWA868c) and DP2 receptor (CAY10471) antagonists showed us that both treatments inhibited LTC4 synthesis during these inflammatory responses. However, only BWA868C treatment was able to inhibit lipid bodies biogenesis within recruited eosinophils to the inflammatory sites, while CAY10471, decreased the number of infiltrated eosinophils in the pleural cavity, but did not inhibit lipid bodies biogenesis within these low number of recruited cells. In vitro, pre-treatment with BWA868c or CAY10471 inhibited LTC4 synthesis by human eosinophils stimulated with PGD2. Moreover, the activation of DP1 receptor with its selective agonist (BW245c) and DP2 activation with DP2 selective agonist (DK-PGD2) reinforced the observation that during LTC4 synthesis within eosinophils, activation of both receptors are necessary, because only simultaneous activation of DP1 and DP2, induced LTC4 synthesis within eosinophilic lipid bodies (Eicosacell). Moreover, we observed that the pathway of cellular signaling involved on lipid bodies biogenesis induced by DP1 activation is dependent on protein kinase A (PKA). In another set of experiments, we investigated PGD2 as a therapeutical target of allergic diseases. Recently, it was described that aqueous extract of C.sympodialis and warafteine (isolated alkaloid) have antiallergic properties, because of its effects on the reduction of eosinophils recruitment, lipid bodies biogenesis and cysteinyl leukotrienes synthesis. Here, we demonstrated that pre-treatments with extract and its alkaloid were able to inhibit PGD2 production during allergic response. In vitro, warafteine did not inhibit eosinophil lipid bodies biogenesis induced by PGD2, but it was capable to inhibit PGD2 release by activated mast cells – otherwise fail to blockade PGE2 production by A23187- activated macrophages – suggesting that the action mechanism of its antiinflammatory effects could occur through PGD2 synthesis inhibition in allergic sites.

Chromatin has a compact organization in which most DNA sequences are structurally inaccessible and functionally inactive. Reconfiguration of thechromatir required to activate transcription. This reconfiguration is achieved by the action of enzymes that covalently modify nucleosomal core histones, and by enzymes that disrupt histone-DNA interactions via ATP hydrolysis. TheSWI/SNF family of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes has been implicated not only in gene activation but also in numerous cellular processes including differentiation, gene repression, cell cycle control, recombination and DNA repair. PPARγ, C/EBPα and C/EBPβ are transcription factors with well established roles in adipogenesis. Ectopical expression of each of these factors in non-adipogenic cells is sufficient to convert them to adipocyte-like cells. To determine the requirements of SWI/SNF enzymes in adipocyte differentiation, we introduced PPARγ, C/EBPα or C/EBPβ into fibroblasts that inducibly express dominant-negative versions of the Brahma-Related Gene 1 (BRG1) or human Brahma (BRM), which are the ATPase subunits of the SWI/SNF enzymes. We found that adipogenesis and expression of adipocyte genes were inhibited in the presence of mutant SWI/SNF enzymes. Additionally, in cells expressing C/EBPα or C/EBPβ, PPARγ expression was SWI/SNF dependent. These data indicate the importance of these remodeling enzymes in both early and late gene activation events. Subsequently, we examined by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay the functional role of SWI/SNF enzymes in the activation of PPARγ2, the master regulator of adipogenesis. Temporal analysis of factors binding to the PPARγ2 promoter showed that SWI/SNF enzymes are required to promote preinitiation complex assembly and function. Additionally, our studies concentrated on the role of C/EBP family members in the activation of early and late genes during adipocyte differentiation. During adipogenesis, C/EBPβ and δ are rapidly and transiently expressed and are involved in the expression of PPARγ and C/EBPα, which together activate the majority of the adipocyte genes. Our studies determined the temporal recruitment of the C/EBP family at the promoters of early and late genes by ChIP assay during adipocyte differentiation. We found that all of the C/EBP members evaluated are present at the promoters of early and late genes, and the binding correlated with the kinetics of the C/EBPs expression. Binding of C/EBPβ and δ is transient, subsequently being replaced by C/EBPα. These studies demonstrated that C/EBPβ and δ are not only involved in the regulation of PPARγ and C/EBPα, but also in the activation of late expressed adipocyte genes.

Marine environments are under constant pressure from anthropogenic pollution. Chemical pollutants are introduced into the aquatic environment through waste disposal, sewage, land runoff and environmental exploitation (harbours, fisheries, tourism) leading to disastrous effects on the marine wildlife. Developmental malformations, reproduction failure including sex changes and high death rates are commonly observed in aquatic animal populations around the world. Unfortunately, the underlying molecular mechanisms of these pollution effects, in particular for marine invertebrate species, are often unknown. One proposed mechanism through which environmental pollution affects wildlife, is the disruption of nuclear receptors (NRs), ligand-binding transcription factors in animals. Environmental pollutants can directly interact with nuclear receptors, inducing incorrect signals for gene expression and subsequently disrupt developmental and physiological processes. Elucidation of the exact mechanism in invertebrates, however, is sparse due to limited understanding of invertebrate endocrinology and molecular regulatory mechanisms. Here, I have investigated the presence, expression and function of NRs in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, and explored their interrelation with known environmental pollutants. Using a suite of molecular techniques and bioinformatics tools I demonstrate that the Pacific oyster possesses a large variety of NR homologs (43 NRs), which display individual expression profiles during embryo/larval development and supposedly fulfil distinct functions in developmental and physiological processes. Functional studies on a small subset of oyster NRs provided evidence for their ability to regulate gene expression, including interactions with DNA, other NRs or small molecules (ligand-binding). Oyster receptors also show a high likeliness to be disrupted by environmental pollutants. Computational docking showed that the retinoid X receptor ortholog, CgRXR, is able to bind and be activated by 9-cis retinoic acid and by the well-known environmental contaminant tributyltin. A potential interaction between tributyltin and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ortholog CgPPAR has also been found. In addition, exposure of oyster embryos to retinoic acids and tributyltin resulted in shell deformations and developmental failure. In contrast, computer modelling of another putative target for pollutants, the retinoic acid receptor ortholog CgRAR, did not indicate interactions with common retinoic acids, supporting a recently developed theory of loss of retinoid binding in molluscan RARs. Sequence analyses revealed six residues in the receptor sequence, which prevent the successful interaction with retinoid ligands. In conclusion, this investigative work aids the understanding of fundamental processes in invertebrates, such as gene expression and endocrinology, as well as further understanding and prediction of effects of environmental pollutants on marine invertebrates.

La stéatohépatite non alcoolique (NASH) est une maladie du foie à évolution clinique grave, dont la prévalence est en constante progression. La stéatohépatite non alcoolique est caractérisée par un dépôt excessif de lipides dans les hépatocytes (stéatose) associé à une inflammation chronique, au contraire de la stéatose hépatique (NAFLD), manifestation initiale mais bénigne d'un dérèglement métabolique. Le NASH augmente le risque de progression vers la fibrose, la cirrhose et le carcinome hépatocellulaire et ne peut être soigné que par une greffe hépatique. Le risque de développer un diabète de type est aussi significativement augmenté chez les patients atteints de NASH. PPAR⍺ est un récepteur nucléaire connu pour réguler l'utilisation des acides gras dans le foie et réprimer les voies de signalisation pro-inflammatoires. [...]Nous avons conçu mutant de PPAR⍺ dont l'activité de liaison à l'ADN est abolie. La comparaison de ses activités transcriptionnelles in vitro avec le PPAR⍺ non muté démontre que les activités de contrôle du métabolisme sont abolies pour ce mutant, alors que les activités anti-inflammatoires restent intactes. [...] Dans cette étude, nous montrons donc pour la première fois que PPAR⍺ inhibe la progression de la stéatose vers le NASH et la fibrose par un mécanisme anti-inflammatoire direct, indépendant de son effet sur le métabolisme lipidique hépatique. / Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is an increasingly prevalent liver condition characterized by excessive lipid deposition in the hepatocytes steatohepatitis (NASH) is hallamarked by chronic inflammation. NASH markedly increases the risk of progression towards liver fibrosis, cirrhosis ans hepatocellular carcinoma. The nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR⍺) regulates hepatic fatty acid utilization and represses pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. [...]Liver-specific expression of wild type or DNA binding-deficient PPAR⍺ in acute and chronic models of inflammation demonstrated that PPAR's anti-inflammatory, but not metabolic activities, result from DNA binding-independent mechanisms in vivo. We futher show that PPAR⍺ inhits the transition from steatosis toward NASH and fibrosis through a direct, anti-inflammatory mechanism independent of its effetc on hepatic lipid metabolism.

Overweight and obesity are associated with Type 2 Diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, cardiovascular disease and cancer, but all fat is not equal as storing excess lipid in subcutaneous white adipose tissue (SWAT) is more metabolically favorable than in visceral fat. Here, we uncover a critical role for mTORC2 in setting SWAT lipid handling capacity. We find that subcutaneous white preadipocytes differentiating without the essential mTORC2 subunit Rictorexpress mature adipocyte markers but develop a striking lipid storage defect. In vivo,this results in smaller adipocytes, reduced tissue size, lipid re-distribution to visceral and brown fat, and sex-distinct effects on systemic metabolic fitness. Mechanistically, mTORC2 promotes transcriptional upregulation of select lipid metabolism genes controlled by PPARgand ChREBP. These include genes that control lipid uptake, synthesis, and degradation pathways as well as Akt2, the gene encoding its substrate and insulin effector. Finally, we reveal a potential novel mTORC2 target, ACSS2, which might control intracellular acetyl-CoA availability and regulate metabolic gene expression by altering histone modification in white adipocytes. Exploring this pathway may uncover strategies to promote safe lipid storage and improve insulin sensitivity.